A Practical Study Of Argument, Audiobook : CD For Computer Solution Manual

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CHAPTER 1What Is an Argument? (And What Is Not?)The most important ideas in this chapter are:(1)Arguments can be given for our beliefs, and the fact that we have opinions and 'have aright to our opinions' does not preclude giving such arguments.(2)These arguments can be better or worse and we can reach informed judgments aboutwhat makes them better or worse.(3)To offer an argument for a claim, C, is to put forward other claims, PI, P2, etc, asreasons supporting C. (4) The premises are supposed to support the conclusion; the ideais that one reasonsfromthe premisestothe conclusion.Obstacles frequently encountered in connection with this material are:(1)General relativism;(2)Relativism supported by cliches such as "it's all a matter of opinion," "isn't it just amatter of opinion?", "that's just his opinion," "everyone has a right to his opinion," and soon;(3)Relativism supported by the idea that it would be rude to disagree with someone else;(3)An inability to pick out arguments;(4)A tendency to reverse the direction in arguments or not understand that there shouldbe any direction and, thus, to confuse the conclusion with the premises;(5)A tendency to think that every passage must contain either an argument or anexplanation.If feasible, one might conduct a general discussion on the opinion/relativism issues. Withregard to argument structure, if students are having trouble with this, one might provideextra examples and recommend some strategy such as underlining all conclusions in redand all premises in green. One could really emphasize indicator words and, if providingextra examples, make sure these contain many of these words.Exercise 11.There is no argument here. The first sentence is a factual statement and the secondoffers an informal definition.2.Answer in text.3.Thispassage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that no one can know anyclaim with certainty. The other three sentences are premises, put forward to support thatconclusion.4.Answer in text.5.This passage does not contain an argument. There is merely a statement that one personis a better tennis player than another. No support is provided for the claim made.6.Answer in text.7.This passage contains an argument. The indicator word "so" precedes the conclusion,which is that no atheist can demonstrate his loyalty to the state. Note: in identifying thisstatement as the conclusion, adapted from John Locke, we are not implying that thestatement is true.8.This passage does contain an argument. The firstpart of thesentence is the conclusion,and the rest, following the word “because” supplies a reason for that conclusion.

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29.Answer in text.10.Answer in text.11.This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is, "You also need to keep toxicradioactive substances from the workers." The support is signaled by the presence of"Because" at the beginning of the second sentence. Note:The concept of a subargumentis not introduced until the next chapter and there is really no need to bring it in here.However, if especially perceptive students raise a question about the role of the lastsentence in the passage, it can be explained in this way: The words "You see" at thebeginning of the third sentence also serve as a premise indicator. However, here theintended support is not for the main conclusion, but for the statement, "The dose [of toxicradioactive substances] that federal regulations allow workers to get is sufficient to createa genetic hazard to the whole human species."12.This passage does not contain an argument. It offers practical advice on what isneeded for long-term business success, but does not provide any premises offeringreasons to back up that advice.13.Answer in text.14.There is an argument. The premise is that I shall pass through this world but once;this premise is expressed in the first sentence and again, in slightly different words, in thelast part of the second sentencein “I shall not pass this way again.”The conclusion is thatany kindness I can do should be done at once,not deferred or neglected.15.Answer in text.16.This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is the firstparts of thesentence,“knowledge is happiness.”The premiseis expressed in the rest of the sentence.17.This passage does not contain an argument.18.Answer in text.19.This passagedoes notcontain an argument.It consists of a series of questions.Exercise 2: Part A1.Answer in text.2.This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is the first statement. The sentence,"This point is quite easy to prove," indicates that support for the conclusion is coming,and the reason is provided in the third sentence.3.Answer in text.4.Answer in text.5.Answer in text.6.This passage contains an argument; two reasons are given for the conclusion, which isthat one should not despair. Why not? First, because it would be unhelpful; second,because there is not enough time.7.Answer in text.8.This passage contains an argument for the conclusion that human beings are not theonly animals that communicate with each other. The premisestatethat dolphins, whales,elephants, and even bees communicate with each other.9.This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that the local hospital willnot manage to prevent the spread of disease on its premises. The indicator word "so"precedes the conclusion. The first two sentences are premises.10.Answer in text.

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311.This passage does not contain an argument. It offers a favorable description ofMiller's writing style.12.Answer in text.13.This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is "Licensing nuclear powerplants is licensing murder."The first two statements are premises put forward to supportthat conclusion.14. Answer in text.15.Answer in text.16.This passage does contain an argument. The conclusion is that one is not an isolatedindividual but rather a member of a larger society. The premise is that one's life, security,liberty and happiness depend on the cooperation of other people.17.This passage contains an argument. The conclusion is, "Marketing practices shouldnot induce mothers who otherwise would be willing and able to breast-feed to switch tothe bottle." The second, third, and fourth sentences are the premises.18.Answer in text.19.Answer in text.Exercise 2: Part BThis exercise requires student answers with regard to the contexts of explanation andargument.

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CHAPTER 2Pinning Down Argument StructureIn this chapter, many diagrams have been included, since they are often helpful inproviding a sense of the flow in argument-the fact that one is supposed to move from thepremises to the conclusion. Students are not asked to draw these diagrams in exercises,because many passages contain subtle ambiguities and diagramming can raisecontroversiesand difficultiesthatmight posediscouraging obstacles at this stage.The fundamental ideas in this chapter are:(1)Before evaluating an argument, we have to understand it.(2)Standardizing arguments, representing their premises and conclusions in clearlanguage and structured order, is fundamentally important for understanding them.(4) Discourse that includes argument may also include material that is not part of theargument.(3)Arguments may contain subarguments.(4)Arguments may contain unstated premises and conclusions.(5)Visual images may be accompanied by arguments (especially in a format thatincludes words, such as the cartoon), but a pictureby itselfdoes not constituteanargument.Difficulties may include:(1)A tendency to push ahead and make evaluational comments without restrictingoneself to the task of identifying and stating the premises and conclusion;(2)A tendency to add missing premises liberally and shift from understanding anargument to creating a differentargument, fixing the original thing up so as to suit one’sown tastes.Students should be reminded that charity does not extend this far, and thatthey are asked to understand and represent an argument presented to them andnot, at thispoint, asked to replace the presented argument with one they have invented;(3)A tendency to add missing conclusions liberally and turn everything into anargument, even when the original context and wording provide no good reason for doingso;(4)Impatience with the fussiness of standardization;(5)Difficulty in understanding the nature of, and details of, rhetorical flourishes-particularly for those for whom English is a second language.Conclusions may beexpressed in rhetorical questions, commands, or even exclamations when these, incontext, can be interpreted as making statements.Suggestions for livening up this material:(1)Have students bring material from a newspaper or magazine, or another course theyare taking;(2)Have students bring cartoons or ads with visual materialand discuss whether, andwhy, it might be reasonable to read in conclusions or premises.(3)Do role plays to appreciate the pragmatic significance between scope qualificationand hedging with regard to degrees of certainty.

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2Chapter 2,Exercise 11.Answer in text.2.This passage does not contain an argument.It begins with a comment that everyoneknows the U.S. is having an election (in 2008); the author proceeds to state three thingsthat he thinks Europe should focus on. He does not offer reasons for his statement thatthese three things are jobs, Muslims, and neighbors.3.Answer in text.4.This passagedoescontain an argument.The conclusion is in the last sentence and isindicated by the word “therefore.” The other three sentences are premises.5. Answer in text.6.This passage does not contain an argument. It amounts to an expression of thankspublicly stated by the Spirit of Sport Foundation.7.This passage contains both an argument and a subargument.(1)The butler was passionately in love with the victim.Thus,(2)It was not the butler who committed the murder.(3)Either the butler committed the murder or the judge committed the murder.Therefore,(4)The judge committed the murder.The subargument goes from (1) to (2), and the main argument goes from (2) and (3) to(4).Note again: identifying the structure does not imply saying that this is a goodargument.8.Answer in text.9.Answer in text.10.Answer in text.11. Hard example. Reassure students if they have difficulty. It is fairly easy to see thatthispassage does state an argument. The conclusion is that terrorism puts civil society ina difficult bind. Thedifficulty of the passage results from the fact that thepremises areslightly difficult to extract. They are (1) ‘Since the modern terrorist cannot bedeterred…, civil society’s war on terror must at times resort to invasions of privacyand…’ <interpreted as statement of explanationwhich is a premise in an argument, andnotanargumentin its own right> ; (2) invasions of privacy and uses of preemptive andexcessive force cause intimidation and undermine trust; and (3) terrorism also causesintimidation and undermines trust.12.This passage contains an argument.(1)We are not under an obligation to give aid unless it is likely to be effective inreducing starvation or malnutrition.Therefore,(2)We are not under an obligation to give aid to countries that make no effort toreduce the rate of population growth that will lead to catastrophe.13.Answer in text.14.This passage contains an argument.(1)The individual who robs a bank gets a lot of money.

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3(2)The individual who robs a bank benefits society by putting large amounts of cash backinto circulation.(3)Bank robberies stimulate the economy.(4)Small businessmen prosper as a result of bank robberies.(5) People can read about bank robberies with great interest.(6)The police have a chance to exercise their skills when bank robberies are committed.So,(7)Bank robberies are good for all.Thus,(8)Of the varied forms of crime, bank robbery is the most satisfactory to both theindividual and society.15.Answer in text.16.This passage contains an argument. Standardization:(1)No one who uses a relatively unreliable procedure in order to decide whether topunish can know whether that otherperson deserves punishment.(2)No one who cannot know whether another person deserves punishment has a right topunish that person.Therefore,(3)No one who uses a relatively unreliable procedure in order to decide whether topunish another person has a right to punish that person.17.This passage does not contain an argument; it offers observations on the role ofobservations in obtaining a good diagnosis.Chapter 2,Exercise 21. Standardization:(1)English is the language of world business and world scholarship.(2)English is the most important language a person can learn to speak and writefluently.Therefore(3)There is no point in getting your first elementary education in some other language ifyour native language is English.Convergent support pattern. Emphasize to students that identifying this argument doesnot mean that one agrees with the conclusion.2.Answer in text.3.Standardization:(1)Virtue is something that is valued because of the kinds of comparisons wemake between people.Therefore,(2)If all people shared good qualities equally, there would be no such thing as virtue.

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4There is one premise and one conclusion. The support pattern is, by default,linear.4.Answer in text.5.Standardization:(1)Scientific theories and calculations based on the hypothesis that electrons existexplain many things that happen in our world.Therefore(2) Electrons must exist.Since there is one premise and one conclusion, the support pattern is, by default,linear.6.Here the argument contains a subargument:(1)Language is necessary for communication.(2)Communication is necessary for the advancement of our civilization.Therefore(3)Language is necessary for the advancement of our civilization.(4)Any attempt to censor language will restrict the advancement of our civilization.Therefore,(5)The censorship of written materials is always wrong.In the subargument, (1) and (2) link to support (3). In the main argument (3) and (4) linkto support (5).Again, it might be wise to emphasize that identifying this content andstructure does not mean that we agree with the conclusion of the argument.7.Answer in text.8.Standardization:(1)Stagnation is death.Therefore,(2)There can be no life without change.Note that the conclusion is expressed in a rhetorical question. Support pattern must belinear, since there is only one premise.Difficult.9.Standardization:(1)Descartes influenced Pascal.(2)Pascal influenced Sartre.Therefore,(3)Descartes influenced Sartre.The support pattern is linked.10.Answer in text.11. Answer in text.Chapter 2,Exercise 31.The invited conclusion is that the global climate is getting warmer. The premises are

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5(1) if the global climate is getting warmer winters on the Canadian prairie should be lesssevere and (2) winters on the Canadian prairie are (by implication) less severe. Note: iftaken as deductive,this argument would commit the fallacy of affirming the consequent;however that fact does not establish that this isn’t the argumentgiven that, after all,people do sometimes argue in fallacious ways.One can, in any event, interprettheargumentas an inductive argument of the inference-to-the-best-explanation type.Particularly sharp students might ask about such things. Note, however, that we are notyet evaluating arguments; we are only identifying them and seeking to understand theircontent and structure.2.Answer in text.3.Answer in text.4.The main conclusion is that mad cow disease is very serious.Apremise is (1) madcow disease spreads because of a certain form of protein that is not destroyed bydisinfecting efforts,and thispremiseestablishes a subconclusion, (2) that we cannotcontrol the way mad cow disease spreads. The argument is (1) therefore (2) therefore (3),in a linear support pattern.5.Answer in text.6.Answer in text.7.The conclusion is that the way to cut the crime rate among youth is to give them somemeaningful activities to do. The premises are the other two statements. They link tosupport the conclusion.The missing premise is that if young people are given meaningfulactivities to do, they will not be bored.8.Answer in text.9. The conclusion is that photographs are not a reliable guide to what reality was like inthe past. The second and third sentences are best understood as illustrative material. Thepremises are in the first sentence. They are (1) Photographs can be altered and (2) Thetechniques for altering photographs are increasingly sophisticated due to the use ofcomputers.Alternate interpretation:The illustrative material could be understood asproviding a sub-argument for (1) here.10. Answer in text.Chapter 2,Exercise 41.Answer in text.2.There is an unstated conclusion to the effect that you should give the woman you loveglorious jewels. The premise is that glorious jewels like these have delighted beautifulwomen for more than a century. (Clearly, this passage copies the style of anadvertisement.)3.Answer in text.4.Answer in text.5.Answer in text.6.There is an argument. The premise is that group performance in problem solving issuperior to even the individual work of the most expert group members. The conclusionis that students learn better when they cooperate. There is no unstated conclusion. Theredoes seem to be an unstated premise to the effect that studentslearnwhen they areworking together to achieve a superior result.

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67.Answer in text.8.Answer in text.9.The visual materials are described because they help to understand what theadvertisers are trying to establish here. The conclusion is that (5) nuclear processes aresafe and should continue to play an important role in the future of American energy. Thestated premises are (1) that nuclear power does not emit greenhouse cases; (2) thatirradiation of foods eliminates harmful microbes; (3) that nuclear technology helps invarious activities ranging from medicine to space exploration; and (4) that nuclear powerplants help keep the air clean. All these points are stated, not implicit. The visual materialis intended to convey an association between nuclear power and natural health. (Note:Argumentative appeals to 'the natural' are discussedat the end ofChapter3.)10.The conclusion is the first sentence. The premise is the second sentence. The missingpremise is that restricting admission to a golf competition is an example ofdiscrimination.11.The conclusion is that women’s ski jumping should be accepted as an event in theOlympics. This conclusion is not quite stated explicitly; it can be drawn from therhetorical question in the second sentence, and from the first sentence. There are threepremises and these are offered in a convergent support pattern. (1) Women’s ski jumpinghas been recognized for a long time. (2) There are competitions in women’s ski jumpingin many different countries. (3) There are some pretty expert women ski jumpers whoare thrilling to watch. Note that premises in the standardized argument should becomplete as to information content; thus in (1) we don’t say “this sport”, but rather we fillinwhich sport.Chapter 2,Exercise 51. Answer in text.2.Standardization:(1)High blood pressure is a real health hazard.(2)Being overweight is likely to cause high blood pressure (missing premise)Therefore,(3)Anyone who is overweight should get to work and reduce.3.Standardization:(1)Any busy person is at risk of illnesses caused by stress.(2)All mothers are busy persons, (missing premise)So,(3)All mothers are at risk of illnesses caused by stress.4.Answer in text.

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75.Standardization:(1)If people were truly unselfish, they would give as much to worthy charities as theysave for old age.(2)People donotgive as much to worthy charities as they save for their old age. (missingpremise, indicated by the rhetorical question, "do they?"which invites a negative answer)Therefore,(3)People are not truly unselfish, (missing conclusion, indicated by theexclamatoryphraseat the end of the passage)6.Answer in text.7.Answer in text.8.Standardization:(1) We all hope to grow old some day; (2) When we grow old we will need the servicesof retailers, manufacturers, politicians, dentists, doctors, nurses, and many otherpersonnel; (3) These people will provide us with what we need; (4) These people willhelp to care for us; (5) Only a few of these people will be our own children; so, (6) Therest of these people will be other people's children; therefore, (7) We all have a personalstake in educating other people's children. (5) supports (6) in a subargument. The lastsentence is taken to express (7) in slightly different words. Premises (1), (2), (3), (4), and(6) link to support (7).9.Answer in text.10.Answer in text.11.This passage does not contain an argument. It describes the attitudes and practices ofthe Taliban and offers an explanation of their harsh measures against women.12.Answer in text.13.The conclusion is implied by the rhetorical question at the end. It is (3) Kelsey wouldnot likely go out with the speaker. The stated premises are (1) if Kelsey is highlyintelligent she would only go out with highly intelligent guys and (2) the speaker is not ahighly intelligent guy. An unstated premise, which we will call (4), is that Kelsey ishighly intelligent.14.Answer in text.15.The stated premise is that Kelsey is a librarian. The stated conclusion is that Kelsey ishighly intelligent. The missing premise is thatalllibrarians are highly intelligent.16. This passage does not contain an argument. The “since” in the opening sentence isbetter interpreted as explanatory; the words “it is hardly surprising that” indicate that thisphenomenon is being explained.

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CHAPTER 3Looking at LanguageComments:(1) In my experience students are quite to appreciate the emotive overtones of variousterms. They are urged to note these. The point should be emphasized that the use ofemotionally loaded language is not, in itself, any sort of mistake or rhetorical trick. If apoint has been established, to state it vividly, with some emotive overtones, does notviolate canons of logic or rational communication. Problems come not when emotion isintegrated into description and argument but rather when peopleseek to avoid the needfor reasons and evidence by stating points in emotionally loaded language. It’s useful tonote the assumptions incorporated into the language one uses. That’s true whether we areexamining an argument or some other type of discourse.(2)The difference between vagueness and ambiguity may cause trouble. There is adistinction, though some ambiguous words may also be vague.(3)The discussion of arguments involving appeals to what is or is alleged to (in somesense)naturalmaybe of special interest. Such arguments are common in advertisements,in discussions of medicine and health, and in policy debates. Students might be urged tofind examples and discuss them with reference to the treatment in the text.(4)Students should be warned that dictionaries are not the final word so far as definitionsare concerned.They are the first wordand theycan be argued to be flawed if ordinarylanguage counter-examples can be found.The discussion in the chapter should make thatclear.Philosophical points can rarely if ever be established by appealing to dictionarydefinitions.(5)Some students may have difficulty understanding how to test whether reportivedefinitions are too broad or too narrow and even, in some cases, understanding the importof "broad" and "narrow" in this context. Discussing further examples in class may help.Chapter 3, Exercise1,Part A1.Answer in text.2.This passage does not contain either euphemism or emotionally charged language.3.In this passage, "device for poverty amelioration" is a euphemism.4.Answer in text.5.There is emotionally loaded language in the terms "thieving despot", "tyrants" and-toa lesserextent-"amassed".6.Answer in text.7.There is negative emotionally charged language in the term "pig of a vehicle" and inthe term "monsters".8.Answer in text.9.Interestingly, "pre-tortured" is used here as a positive term, because the ad seeks toappeal to those who love the "lived-in" (used positively as well) look. In this context"distressed" and "been to Hell and back" are also used positively. Then there is anattention-getting shift to more ordinary evaluative standards when the fit is said to be"pure heaven" (here we have a positive, emotionally charged, term). The word "sanest" isalso emotionally positive.

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10.The expression ‘reinstatement of his previous position with reference to penalinstitutions” is a euphemism for going back to jail.11.There is a considerable amount of negative, emotionally charged language in"demagogic," "knee-jerk one-sided solidarity," and "pound their fists?" The writer alsouses emotionally charged language to try to evoke sympathy with war veterans who are"huddled" and desperate miners who are "crashing their helmets on the pavement."12.Answer in text.13.The following emotionally charged expressions are employed in this passage: "buildbulwarks" (positive); "rising tide of this numbing junk culture" (negative); "swept away"(negative); "rapacious materialism, jingoism and win-at-all costs idolatry" (negative);"gored the hearts" (negative.)14.The word "retained" is a euphemism for having not passed the grade or, more plainly,having failed.Chapter 3,Exercise 1,Part B.Students compose their own material in response to thisexercise.Chapter 3, Exercise2, Part A.1.Answer in text.2.Answer in text.3.The expression “grateful for life” is syntactically ambiguous.The headline mightmean that the person is grateful for being mauled, or that she is grateful for havingsurvived being mauled.4.The word “engaged” is semantically ambiguous. It could mean that the person wasbusy, or could mean that she was engaged to be married, presumably to another person.5.There are no language problems in this statement.6.Answer in text.7.There are no problems of ambiguity or vagueness in this passage.8.Answer in text.9.There is syntactic ambiguity in the expression, "scientists are at a loss." Scientists havelost some of their brains because amoeba ate them? Or scientists are at a loss to explain(that is, cannot explain) the actions or existence of the brain-eating amoeba?10.Basically this is a descriptive passage that does not contain an argument based oneither ambiguity or vagueness. One could allege, however, that the expression “sameperson” is vague.11.There are no problems of vagueness or ambiguity in this passage.12.In this passage theapplicationof the word "murder" is extended. We can say, then,that the writer isexploiting the possibility of vagueness in seeking toapply this negativeterm to cases in which people smokeand the smoke from their cigarettes is (collectivelyand over the long term) a causal factor in the deathof some persons.Chapter 3, Exercise 2, Part B1.Answer in text.2.Answer in text.3.Answer in text.4.This passage containsan argumentwith an implicit (or missing) conclusion, which is

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that your arguments deserve to be thrown out. It relies on the emotionally negative term“garbage.” It is flawed but does not commit the fallacy of equivocation.5.Answer in text.6.There is no fallacy of equivocation in this passage, which does not contain anargument; the material is explanatory.7.Answer in text.8.Answer in text.9.In the title the word “working” is used in two senses. One isworkingin the sense ofhaving a job or performing a set task (externally imposed, or self-imposed). The other isworkingin the sense of“functioning well”. The title does not commit the fallacy ofequivocation, because it does not commit any fallacy. It can’t, because it is not anargument.10.In the quoted part of this argument that there is a problem with branch planteconomies, as indicated by the case of Canada, there is an equivocation in applications ofthe words "the best". At one point "the best" refers to the best jobs by someorganizational standard and at another point it refers to standard of living. These twothings are by no meansthe same.11.There is no fallacy of equivocation in this passage.Chapter 3,Exercise3, Part A1.a. "apartment" andb. "jam" could easily be defined ostensively by pointing toexamples. Also, jam could be tasted,c. "leap" could be ostensively defined bydemonstrating, as well as by pointing to examples; though it might be hard to distinguishin such a way between leaping and jumping,d. Answer in text.e. The roller blades couldbe pointed to, thus ostensively defined,f. Maple syrup could be pointed to, but, evenbetter, one could provide a taste of the sweet stuff in order to ostensively define "maplesyrup".2.a. Answer in text.b.This definition of "health" is too narrow. For example, it ignores the fact that healthmay beadversely affected by injury, lack of exercise, or congenital defect, none of whichis, properly speaking,a "disease". Perhaps more importantly, "health" should probably bedefined in terms of positivequalities such as "soundness" or "wholeness", rather than interms of the absence of negative qualities.c.This definition is too narrow. It includes the information that a hawk is a bird of preywith roundedwings shorter than a falcon's, which is a good start. But a failing is that itimplies that hawks exist onlyin captivity. The comparison of the hawk's wing size withthat of the falcon and the reference to theuse of hawks in falconry are pieces ofinformation which, though interesting, are extraneous to anydefinition of the word"hawk".d.Answer in text.e.A common definition that is too broad, since it permits one to say that a person iswealthy even whenhe hasjust barelyenough resources to avoid deprivation. Wealth isunderstood as an abundance of resources thatgoes beyond this.f.is a stipulative definition.g.This definition can be criticized as circular.

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3.a. This is a persuasive definition of "reform" because itseeksto identify positivechange withone particular policy position.b.This is a persuasive definition of "pure walking" because it defines that expression interms of anallegedly desirable characteristic of a particular brand of shoe.c.Answer in text.d.This is a persuasive definition of the expression "real man" attempting to linkmasculinity to dressconventions rather than to personality or biological traits.e.Answer in text.f.This is a persuasive definitionas suggested by “nothing but.” It gives expression tooneindividual's conception ofmathematics.g.This is a persuasive definition of "security", as suggested by the presence of the word“true.”"Security" is defined so strongly that it will requirebeing able to respond to realand imagined threats of all kinds. And any less stringent account will berejected as "pureillusion." On this definition of "security" the financial and personnel requirements foritwould be indefinitely large; hence the definition is rather dangerous.h. Answer in text.i. Not a persuasive definition. The author is clearly and openly stipulating a meaning forthe expression"total institution" as indicated by his words, "I shall mean by."j. There are two moves here that are classificatory moves similar to persuasive definition.The first isto reject the report by stating that it isnothing butpropaganda—and notspecifying any details thatwould show why the report is inadequate. The second is toinsist that information, to count asgenuine,would have to say what is wrong with thegovernment's policy.k. Answer in text.1. There is a persuasive definition where men who have fathered children are said not tobe parents (used in this context as afavorable term) but rather to be casual fornicators (anunfavorable term).m. There is a persuasive definition of the pharmaceutical industry as something thatengages in ‘trafficking’.Thelanguage used links that industry withothers engaged inillegal and harmful activities (for example,drug traffickers),thus making the idea ofprofiting from humandiseaseseemillegal and harmful.n. There is a persuasive definition in “evolution speeded up.” For those for whom“evolution”is a favorable term, the genetic modification of foods is linked withsomething favorableand something that happens in nature without motivated humanintervention.

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CHAPTER4When Is an Argument a Good One?There is a problem ofexpositionhere; itcannot be avoidedgiven that not every neededconcept can be explained at once.In the light of this problem, it is probably a good ideato mark any assignments and exams quite leniently at this stage. The ARG conditions areexplained more fully in the rest of the book. This chapter is an overview and anintroduction; thus one has to use the ARG conditions rather intuitively at this point.Fundamental themes in this chapter:(1)The definition of a cogent argument in terms of ARG;(2)The distinction between acogentargument and one that issoundin the sense ofhavingtrue premises that deductively entail the conclusion;(3)The preliminaryexplanationof A, R, and G;(4)The notion thatR andG can be satisfied in different ways: deductive validity,inductive strength, analogy, conductive reasons;(5)The distinction betweenA,R and G (in the case of R and G,more likely to be an issuefor some instructors than for students);(6)The conception of the challenge of argumentand how one may fail to meet it;(7)The notion that the quality of (much) discourse is vastly improved if people meet thechallenge of argument instead of dodging it.Difficulties that may arise:(1)Sense that there is insufficient detail and ARG are too vague to be useful (has to bemet with the assurance that there is lots of detail in further chapters);(2)Failure to apply ARG accurately due to not understanding the argumentand inparticular mis-identifying the conclusion(one has to re-visit themes in Chapter 2);(3)Wanting to evaluate arguments simply according to whether one agrees or disagreeswith the conclusion.One may wish to have students construct mini-dialogues similar to those in thechapter, to illustrate cases in which there is, or is not, an appropriate intellectual responseto an argument.Chapter 4,Exercise 11.Answer in text.2.Answer in text.3.Answer in text.4.There is an argument; it has two premises and is deductive in character. Theconclusion follows the word “so.”5.Answer in text.6.There is an argument. It is inductive in character.7.Answer in text.8.There is an argument. The conclusion follows the word “therefore.” The argument isdeductive in character.9.Answer in text.10.There is an argument. It is conductive in character.11.Answer in text.

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12.Answer in text.Chapter 4, Exercise 21. Premises are all acceptable. You might question (3) but the word “can” qualifies itandprotects it.The premises are all relevant and taken together provide good grounds for theconclusion, which is also qualified. Passes on all of ARG.2. Premises are all acceptable; they may be deemed relevant; however they do notprovide adequate grounds. Passes on A, passes on R (although one might dispute that);failson G.3. Premise (1) is disputable and not acceptable just as it stands. It would depend on howone defines ‘innate ideas.’Premise (2) is disputable for similar reasons, and is alsoflawed by vagueness becauseit is not clear how an infant would be supposed to ‘know’an idea. Premise (3) seems highly probable and can be accepted. R and G will pass; thisis a deductively valid argument. A is not all right; R and G pass. Hence the argument isnot cogent.4.Answer in text.5. The first three premises may be accepted. The fourth is disputable,as it dependsonnorms for the ‘highest knowledge’; what these norms are isunclear, sothat premiseneeds defense, which it doesn’t get here.The premises are relevant to the conclusion.However they do not satisfy G, because there could, in principle, be some even ‘higher’form of knowledge which is precise, rigorous, and abstract. A not satisfied, R satisfied,G not satisfied. Argument is not cogent.6. Answer in text.7.Premise (1) is acceptable due to the leniency indicated by “can be interpreted.” Theinference from (1) to (2) may be permitted; the inference from (2) to (3) fails on G. (3)needs defense and doesn’t getasuccessful defense here. (4) makes a sweeping claim withno defense. So (3) and (4) do not pass on A. R and G are satisfied.It is not a cogentargument because it fails on A, though passing on R and G.8. A may be granted since he is talking about his own experience; R may be granted sincehis experience of his students is relevant to the work habits of students in general; G isnot satisfied, given that his students are only some of the students at the whole universityand are, presumably, a small sample.9. Answer in text.10. Answer in text.11. Answer in text.12. The premise is that St. Francis could have helped poor people in his time even more ifhe had given his fortune directly to them rather than giving it away and then begging forresources. The conclusion is that the reputation of St. Francis is better than it deserves tobe. The first sentence is background information and sets the context. The premise isacounterfactual and isquestionable and needs support; hence A is not met. R is met. G isnot satisfied because we would need a more full account of what should properlycontribute to the reputation of a saint.13. Standardization:(1)Commonly used words do not catch our attention because we are so accustomed tohearing them that we scarcely notice them.

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Therefore,(2)Effective writing uses a richly varied vocabulary.The stated premise is acceptable and relevant, but does not by itself provide adequategrounds for the conclusion. In the argument as stated, A and R are satisfied, but G is not.If we add a premise to the effect that effective writing must catch our attention, then Rand G would be satisfied, because the resulting argument would be deductively valid.However, the added premise would not pass on A, since there are cases in which writingcould be effective without catching one’s attention. (One has to ask here what is thepurpose of the writing.)14. This passage does not contain an argument.15. Answer in text.16. Standardization:(1)Advertising involves the testimony of interested parties.So,(2)Advertising is a dubious means of education.(3)The patient’s need for information on health will not be met by transforming thedoctor/patient relationship into one like that between McDonald’s and its customers.Therefore(4)Doctors should not advertise.There is a subargument from (1) to (2). This argument passes on ARG; comparethe discussion on testimony in Chapter 5. (3) Needs defence and is not acceptable as itstands; indeed, this is the core of the issue, so that premise should not go undefended. Tomake (3) relevant and adequate grounds for (4) we would need to add a premise to theeffect that advertising would transform the doctor/patient relationship into one like thatbetween McDonald’s and its customers. As it stands the main argument fails on A. Itpasses on R. It fails on G, because there could be further reasons for advertising, inaddition to the goal of providing information.17. This passage does not contain an argument.Exercise3: Part A1.Answer in text.2.Answer in text.3.Answer in text.4.Answer in text.5.Answer in text.6.Answer in text.Exercise3: Part BIn this exercise, students construct their own responses to arguments in Part A.Exercise4(all parts)This exercise requires students to construct their own arguments (Part A), show that thearguments satisfy the ARG conditions (Part B), and ask for and respond to an evaluationof the arguments (Part C).

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CHAPTER 5Premises: What to Accept and WhyComments:(1)The notion of background knowledge may pose some difficulties. It should be tighterthan just any old thing one happens to believe.(2)Acceptability is not the same as truth.(3)Acceptability is not the same as acceptance.(4)Some students may experience difficulty with the notionsof a prioriand empirical. Ifso, further work should be done, since these notions are quite basic.(5)Note that the position taken in this chapter isnotthat all arguments in which there isan appeal to authority amount to fallacies. However, the criteria for having a cogentargument on authority (and thus supporting a premise in an argument by a cogentsubargument) are quite strict.(6)The need to rely on experts and yet at the same time be cautiously skeptical abouttheir claims makes a good topic for class discussion.(7)The notion of accepting premises provisionally, 'for the sake of argument,' may needto be emphasized and explained. It can be useful if students balk at the premise stage andrefuse to discuss other aspects, such as relevance or adequacy of grounds, on the groundsthat the premises are not acceptable or they "disagree."(8)Because of the changeable nature of material on the Internet, no exercises wereprovided to accompany that discussion. It is desirable to have some, and students shouldbe urged to find and print out materials illustrating the various points made in the text.Chapter 5,Exercise 1: Part A1.Answer in text.2.This statement is not true, because an aunt can be an only child who is married tosomeone who is the brother of someone else.Since it is not true at all, the statement is nota prioritrue.3.Answer in text.4.Answer in text.5.This statementis not knowablea priori;it is an empirical issue whether the authorknows of any studies about the long range effects of slavery, and it is also an empiricalissue whether any such studies exist.6.The statement is a definition and hence knowablea priori.7.Answer in text.8.This statement, a claim regardingrecentevents,is not knowablea priori.9.Answer in text.10.Answer in text.11. Answer in text.12.This statement contains two empirical claims about hiccups. Neitherclaimcan beknowna priori.13.This statement can be known to be truea prioribecause its truth depends on howtheexpressions "jealousy" and "aggression" are used inordinarylanguage.14.Answer in text.15.Answer in text.

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16.This is a common saying, expressing an evaluative judgment about all jobs that areworth doing. It is not truea priori.17.Answer in text.Chapter 5,Exercise 1: Part B1.Answer in text.2.Answer in text.3.Vague, puzzling. Compare the discussion of vagueness in Chapter3. On oneinterpretation-that we are frequently surprised by what people do-this statementwouldbeacceptable as common knowledge.4.Answer in text.5.If this claim were to be acceptable, it would have to be on the basis of commonknowledge. But it does not count as common knowledge, since we don’t really knowabout the reactions of children to clowns painted on the walls.6.Answer in text.7.Acceptable as a matter of common ethical belief, derivable from a more generalprinciple that people have a right to speak their minds.8.The statement that adult tutoring in sports was welcome is acceptable as a piece ofpersonal testimony.9.This statement could be accepted on grounds of common knowledge.10.In a community with a history and culture stemming largely from Christianity, theidea that Christmas is supposed to be about giving could be taken as a matter of commonknowledge.11.The statements that shows are beginning again can reasonably be accepted astestimony from those who placed the ad. (They are in a position to know, and theycertainly wouldn't benefit from lying about the matter.) The other claims are notacceptable.Chapter 5,Exercise 2: Part A1.Answer in text.2.Answer in text.3.Answer in text.4.Answer in text.5.There isan inconsistency between the second sentence and the third sentence.6.The first statement is inconsistent with the third statement. The statements imply boththat all human beings eat meat and that some human beings do not eat meat.7.Answer in text.8.There is no inconsistency in this passage.10.Answer in text.11.Only one claim is made and there is no inconsistency.12.Answer in text.13.There is an inconsistency here.The second statement states, as theonly reasonfor theclaim that housework is not valuable, that it is not financially rewarding. But the firststatement says that an activity does not need to be financially rewarding in order to bevaluable.

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14.In this descriptive passage there is no inconsistency.Chapter 5,Exercise 2: Part B1.Answer in text.2.Answer in text.3. The statement is not refutable by counter-example. It makes a prediction and is statedin tentative terms, as we see from “may take a great leap forward.”Furthermore, nouniversal claim is made.4.This statement cannot be refuted by counter-example because of its use of the word"most."5.Answer in text.6.This statement cannot be refuted by counter-example because of its use of the word"typically." If one found a case, or even several cases, in which increases in immigrationdid appear to result in higher unemployment, they would still not refute the claim,because of its use of "typically."7.Answer in text.8. This statement is not open to refutation by counter-example, because of the use ofqualifying expressions “can lead” and “is, in some cases, fatal.” If one were to discoverthat the allergy has absolutely never been fatal, the claim that it is sometimes fatal wouldbe falsified, but not by counter-example.9.Answer in text.10.The claim is a universal one, and can be refuted by counter-example. It is quite easyto find examples of textbooks that contain cartoons.Chapter 5,Exercise 2: Part CFor purposes of clarity, the arguments in this part of the exercise will be standardized.1.The argument is: (1) Witholding information is just the same as lying; (2) Lying iswrong in every circumstance; therefore (3) Withholding information is wrong. Premise(1) can be refuteda priori,given what lying is. Premise (2) can be refuted by counter-example.2.This passage contains a subargument. Standardization: (1) Nobody should undertake acollege education without at least some idea of what he or she wants to do and where heor she wants to go in life. (2) Our world is so full of change that we cannot predict whichfields will provide job openings in the future. Thus, (3) We can't form any reasonable lifeplans. Therefore, (4) No one should go to college.The sub-argument has two premises.(1) can be accepted; it is a universal statement but makes a modest claim in the words“without at least some idea.” (2) is also acceptable, on the basis of common knowledge.The problem with the sub-argument lies elsewhere. (1) and (2) do not provide adequategrounds for (3) becauselife plans need not be based on job prospects. We do not find inthe sub-argument full reasons to support (3); thus in the argument from (3) to (4), wewould have to ask whether (3) is true for some other reason. In (3) “we” is used in animplicitly universal way. Claim (3) can be refuted by counter-example and is, therefore,unacceptable.3.Answer in text.4.Standardization: (1) Nuclear energy has a potential to cause environmental damage

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