Russian Political Opposition Pre-1917

Future of Russia in hands of peasants
‘Going to the people’
1879 ‘People’s Will’ assassination of AII
Established a violent anti-tsarist tradition
Didn’t work because peasants not interested in political revolution, and assassinating AII gave them a bad rep.

Led by Victor Chernov. Supported peasant anarchism.
In 1891 widened term ‘people’ to include workers
Made up of two groups, left and right, left violent, right more moderate
1901-5 Left - 2000 political assassinations
After 1905 Revolutions, concessions to liberals, right to take over
Popular with peasants ‘returning the land to those who worked it’
Fractured, but until 1917 they were the party with the largest popular following in Russia.

Marxists
Revolution in the hands of the proletariat
‘No revolution ever waits for formal majorities’ - Lenin vs Plek
Lenin returned from exile in 1900,published ‘What is to be Done?’ in 1902, a strong attack on Plekhanov’s desire for a large party and his policy of ‘economism’
Split into Bolsheviks (Lenin) and Mensheviks (Plekhanov and Martov) in 1903

5-10,000 and then 25,000

Very small

Until October Manifesto political parties were illegal in Russia
This made parties suspicious of each other, and cooperation difficult to organise
Reformers and liberals were made up of industrialists, lawyers and financiers from economic boom in 1890s and nationalist element from ethnic minorities.

1904 - Leaders Paul Milyukov and Peter Struve.
Aim to abolish Autocracy, replace with a constitutional regime with democracy.
Paved way for 1905 revolutions, but was unable to bring various liberal groups together in a single coherent movement with one purpose.

Moderates, loyal to the tsar and his government, wanted constitutional advances like the Duma and OM
Made up of industrialists and large land owners - fear of peasant uprisings and social revolutions.
Led by Alexander Guchkov and Mikhail Rodzianko
Appealed for a ‘strong and authoritative regime’ to work with representatives of the people’ to bring peace to Russia. Would criticise, not overthrow tsardom.

1905 - Constitutional Democrats
Largest of liberal parties
Wanted Russia to develop as a constitutional monarchy in which the powers of the tsar would be restricted by a democratically elected National Assembly
Made up of progressive landlords, smaller industrial entrepreneurs, artisans and academics
Led by Paul Milyukov
In the Duma the Kadets were the most outspoken critics of the tsar

National Assembly

Equality and civil rights

End censorship

Abolition of redemption payments on land

Trade Unions and right to strike

Universal free education

1904-5

Expansionist policy
To obtain a free-ice port (warm water port)
To distract attention from Russia’s domestic troubles with a patriotic struggle

Russia greatly underestimated the strength of Japan
Port Arthur fell to Japan in January 1905, Mukden in February
Japanese fleet destroyed the Russian Baltic fleet at Tsushima in May 1905, forcing Russian government to make peace
National humiliation
The incompetence of the government, which the war exposed, excited social unrest, increased tension leading to 1905 revolution

The Zemstvo Union was the most vocal critic of the war effort. AIII had trimmed their powers in 1890 counter-reforms and changed the franchise to guarantee dominance of the nobility. But this didn’t buy off the critics - still progressive nobles considered themselves ‘loyal opposition’ and were outspoken - like Prince Lvov. Opposed misgovernment.

‘The general dissatisfaction of all classes with the government and their open hostility against it’ Tolstoy, 1902 Open Address to NII
Not opposition to tsarist tyranny, but to tsarist incompetence
First time the government had faced the 3 main opposition classes: proletariat, peasantry and middle class, at once.
It was the tsarist regime’s ill-judged policies that turned the disturbances of 1905 into a direct challenge to its own authority

22 January 1905
Father Georgi Gapon attempted to lead a peaceful march of workers to the Winter Palace
The March induced panic in police forces, crowds were fired on and charged by the cavalry - about 200 marchers were killed
Depicted as a deliberate massacre - damaged image of NII as the ‘Little Father’

Strikes in all major towns
Terrorism against government officials and landlords led by SRs
Peasants seize and squat in landlords houses - fear that government was about to repossess land of ex-serfs who hadn’t paid off redemption dues
Georgia declared autonomy
Jews pressed for equal rights

He called for a ‘Union of Unions’ of liberal groups including peasants and proletariat - from this group the Kadet party would be formed

June 1905
Crew took over the ship
The sailor’s elected representative, Vakulenchuk, was shot immediately by the captain.
Rest of squadron did not mutiny.
At Odessa strikers honoured Vakulenchuk with flowers. Troops ordered tomb disperse crowds and civilian death toll was in the thousands.

Sergei Witte feared that the returning troops from the Russo-Japanese War (which ended in August) would join the revolution. If they did ‘everything would collapse’.
Witte referred to government policy as ‘a mixture of cowardice, blindness and stupidity’.

Promise to create a state Assembly - but implication was that NII would not restrict his authority in any way. V limited concessions.
In September a series of strikes began in St.P and Moscow, workers joined by university students, brining universities to a standstill, adding to general disorder.

By October 1905, the industrial unrest had grown into a general strike
In a number of cities, workers formed themselves into an elected soviet, to represent workers’ demands for better conditions, but their potential as bases for political agitation was immediately recognised by revolutionaries.
Leon Trotsky, Menshevik, became chairman of the St.P soviet and organised of several strikes in the capital.

By October concessions were unavoidable, but NII could use it to divide the opposition forces:
Liberals appeased by the OM which accepted a legislative Duma, promised to introduce a range of civil rights, freedom of speech, assembly and worship, legalising of trade unions.
Peasants - pacified - redemption payments abolished, immediate drop in number of land-seizures by peasants.
Suppression of proletariat. Returning troops used against strikers. Stormed HQ of St.P Soviet and arrested Trotsky.

7-18 December
Tsarist regiments sent from St.P to Moscow, used heavy artillery, soviet resistors surrendered
Led to the deaths of over 1000 people
Lenin arrived in Moscow to see Soviet buildings being burned by government troops

Other than Trotsky no revolutionaries were involved. Was it even a revolution?
Stardom emerged stronger in some respects. Troops remained loyal. Liberals and peasants readily accepted concessions - indicating that they didn’t want Revolution.
Concessions in OM just expedient - Fundamental Laws April 1906 ‘No law can come into force without the tsar’s approval’

Loyalty of army and government's use of repression
Liberals put off idea of revolution - didn't like proletariat coarseness
Peter Struve - Kadets - "Thank God for the tsar, who has saved us from the people."
Leon Trotsky - failed because protesters were disunited and inexperienced and because liberals betrayed the workers

"although with a few broken ribs, had come out of the 1905 experience alive and strong."