Sociology - Race and Ethnicity | Sociology

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Study GuideSociology–Race and Ethnicity1.MinoritiesIn sociology, the wordminoritydoes not simply mean a group with fewer people. Instead, it refers toracial or ethnic groups that are treated unfairly or have fewer advantages in asociety. A groupcan even be large in number and still be considered a minority if it lacks power or equal opportunities.For example, people with green eyes are fewer in number, but they are not considered a minority inthe sociological sense because they are not socially disadvantaged.1.1Key Features of Minority GroupsMinority groups usually share several important characteristics:1.Strong Group IdentityMembers of minority groups often feel a sense of belonging with one another. This sharedidentitycomes from common experiences, culture, history, or traditions.2.Social SeparationMinority groups may feel separated or isolated from the rest of society. This separation can be social,cultural, or economic.3.Disadvantage Compared tothe MajorityMinorities often face disadvantages when compared to the dominant or majority group. Thesedisadvantages can include fewer economic opportunities, lower social status, or limited access topower.It is important to note thatnot all minority members experience all of these factors equally. Someindividuals are able to move beyond what sociologists call theirmaster status—the social identitymost strongly linked to race or ethnicity.

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Study Guide1.2Why Minority Status Often Remains FixedEven when individuals from minority groups achieve personal success,their minority status oftenremains unchanged. Many minority groups tend to live in specific regions, cities, or neighborhoods—often areas with fewer resources and higher poverty levels.Because of this,race and ethnicity are closely connected to inequalityin:•Power•Wealth•PrestigeThese inequalities can sometimes create tension or conflict between different groups in society.1.3Marriage and Cultural PreservationTo protect their culture and traditions, many minority groups preferendogamy, which means marryingwithin the group. Marriage outside the group—calledintermarriage—is not always accepted by eitherthe minority or majority group.By limiting intermarriage, minority groups reduce the chances ofassimilation, which is the gradualprocess of adopting the dominant culture’s values and practices.2. Prejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and discrimination have existed throughout human history andcontinue to affect societiestoday. Although the two terms are related, they are not the same.Prejudicerefers to rigid, irrational attitudes or opinions that one group holds about another. Thesebeliefs are usually formed in advance and are difficult to change. People can hold prejudices withoutever acting on them.Discrimination, on the other hand, involvesactions or behaviors. It happens when people treatothers unfairly because of their group membership. Discrimination often grows out of negativeprejudice, but not all prejudiced people discriminate.People who discriminate usually do so to protect their own advantages. By denying opportunities toothers, they try to hold on to jobs, power, or social status they believe should belong only to them.

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Study Guide2.1 Prejudice in HistorySadly, prejudice against racial and ethnic minorities continues to exist, even in modern, educatedsocieties. One of the most well-known and tragic examples is the long history of discrimination againstJewish people.For thousands of years, Jews have faced mistreatment and persecution. The most extreme exampleoccurred duringWorld War II, when the Nazi regime attempted to eliminate the Jewish population inEurope. Millions of Jews were killed in German concentration camps in the name of Nazi beliefs about“racial purity.” This event is known asgenocide, meaning the systematic killing of an entire group ofpeople.Events like this—and many others throughout history—have led sociologists to closely study race,ethnicity, prejudice, and discrimination.2.2 Where Does Prejudice Come From?Sociologists and psychologists have identified several emotional and social factors that help explainwhy prejudice develops.Emotional Factors and ScapegoatingSome prejudice comes from unconscious feelings of insecurity or inadequacy. To cope with thesefeelings, people mayprojecttheir fears onto a weaker group. These groups becomescapegoats—people who are unfairly blamed for problems they did not cause.Blaming a target group can reduce anxiety by simplifying complex problems. Instead of facing difficultrealities, people may think,“Those people are the reason for my problems.”Research shows thatprejudice is strongly connected tolow self-esteem. By looking down on others, people maytemporarily feel more powerful or important.2.3Social Factors That Encourage PrejudiceIn addition to emotional causes, several social factors can increase prejudice and discrimination.1. SocializationMany prejudices are learned early in life. Parents may pass biased beliefs to their children, oftenwithout realizing it. The media also plays a powerful role. Television, movies, and advertisements

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Study Guidesometimes reinforce negative stereotypes about ethnic minorities, women, LGBTQ+ individuals,people with disabilities, and the elderly.2. Pressure to ConformPrejudiced views can bring approval from family members or peers. As a result, rejecting these viewsmay lead to social rejection. The pressure to fit in with friends, family, or coworkers can be verystrong.3. Economic CompetitionPrejudice often increases when groups compete for jobs or resources. During times of economichardship or social stress, people may blame other groups for their struggles. Studies show thatprejudice tends to risesharply during these periods.4. The Authoritarian PersonalitySome individuals develop what sociologists call anauthoritarian personality. These people tend tothink in rigid categories, strongly obey authority figures, and reject those they see as inferior. Theyoften hold intolerant views about race, religion, and sexuality.This personality type may develop in childhood, especially in homes with strict, unloving parents. Asadults, these individuals may control their fears and anxieties through strict rules and stereotypes.5. EthnocentrismEthnocentrismis the tendency to judge other cultures using the standards of one’s own culture. Itoften involves viewing one’s own culture as superior and being suspicious of outsiders. While mostcultures show some ethnocentrism, it commonly leads to stereotypes andmisunderstandings.6. Group ClosureGroup closurehappens when groups create clear boundaries to keep others out. One example isrefusing to marry outside one’s ethnic or social group. This practice helps maintain group identity butcan also reinforce prejudice.

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Study Guide7. Conflict TheoryAccording toconflict theory, powerful groups work to protect their wealth, status, and resources. Toavoid competition, they may limit opportunities for minority groups. In extreme cases, this can lead toviolence. In response, disadvantaged groups may also resort to violence to improve their conditions.2.4Attempts to Reduce PrejudiceOver the years, sociologists have explored many ways to reduce prejudice andconflict betweengroups.The Self-Esteem HypothesisThis theory suggests that improving education and self-esteem will reduce prejudice. However,research shows that higher self-esteem alone does not eliminate biased attitudes.The Contact HypothesisAccording to this idea, prejudice decreases when people from different groups interact and learnabout each other’s shared experiences. While contact can help, it does not always lead to positiveoutcomes.The Cooperation HypothesisThis theory argues that groups must work together toward common goals. Cooperation can reducehostility, but it is often too brief or limited to overcome deep-rooted influences.The Legal HypothesisLaws that ban discrimination can reduce unfair behavior. Legal changes have led toimportantprogress, such as women gaining the right to vote and racial integration in public spaces. However,laws do not automatically change attitudes and can sometimes increase resentment.2.5Why Prejudice Is So Hard to EliminateResearch shows thatindividual-level solutions alone are not enough. Even people who are notusually prejudiced can develop strong biases during times of war or economic competition.Efforts such as school desegregation have also faced challenges. In many cases, integrated schoolshave seen students form ethnic cliques or gangs, sometimes leading to conflict rather than unity.

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