Sociology - The Sociological Perspective | Sociology

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Study GuideSociology–The Sociological Perspective1. Sociology in America1.1How Sociology Came to the United StatesSociology came to the United States from Europe around the beginning of the 20th century. EarlyAmericansociologists wanted to understand the major social problems of their time. These problemsincluded crime, racial inequality, and economic hardship.Although American sociologists shared concerns with European thinkers, their approach wasdifferent. European sociologists focused more on creating large theories about how society works.American sociologists preferred practical solutions to specific problems, such as child labor andunsafe working conditions.1.2Jane Addams and Hull HouseOne of the most important figures in early American sociology was Jane Addams (1860–1935). She isconsidered a founder of American sociology and strongly believed that research should be used toimprove people’s lives.Jane Addams established Hull House in Chicago. Hull House was both a community center and aplace for sociological research. Many of the sociologists who worked there were women. Theybelieved in using sociological knowledge to solve real social problems.The sociologists at Hull House studied issues such as unfair labor practices, child labor, workerexploitation, poverty, juvenile delinquency, and discrimination against women, minorities, and theelderly.They used a research method called mapping. This method involved collecting data like age, gender,and income level, placing the information on maps, and studying patterns. Mapping helped them seewhere social problems were most serious.

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Study GuideAfter identifying problems, they took action. They created social policies, organized communitymembers, and pressured political leaders to make changes. Jane Addams played a major role increating government safety and health standards. She also helped establish important programs suchas Social Security, Workers’ Compensation, and the Children’s Bureau. In 1931, she received theNobel Peace Prize for her work.1.3Sociology as Both an Applied and a Basic ScienceFor the first 40 years of the 20th century, most American sociologists focused on applied sociology.Thismeans they used sociological knowledge to solve real social problems and support social reform.Later, sociologists became more interested in developing general theories about society. During thistime, sociology was viewed as a basic social science, meaning knowledge was pursued for its ownsake.With this change came the idea that sociology should be objective and free from personal values orpolitical goals. Between 1940 and 1960, sociologists developed more advanced scientific researchmethods to study social behavior and societies.1.4A Return to Practical SolutionsIn the 1960s, many people began to question the idea that sociology should be completely value-free.Social problems such as racial conflict, gender inequality, poverty, and opposition to the Vietnam Warbecame major public concerns.Because of this, sociology once again focused on finding practical solutions. The field returned to itsapplied roots, using research to help solve real-world problems.1.5Sociology TodayAt the start of the 21st century, sociology in America combines both approaches. It is both appliedand basic, and it includes both objective research and subjective understanding.Sociology has also expanded into many specialties. These include industrial sociology, which appliessociology to business and workplace issues; ethnomethodology, which studies everyday common

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Study Guidesense behavior; and clinical sociology, which focuses on solving human problems and creating socialchange.Today, there are about 20,000 sociologists working in the United States.2. Three Major Perspectives in SociologySociologists study society in many different ways. Sometimes they focus on small, everydayinteractions between people. This is called themicro level of analysis. At other times, they look atlarge social patterns and institutions, such as the economy or government. This is known as themacro level of analysis.Early European sociologists developed broad ideas about how society works. Their ideas became thefoundation for modern sociological theories. These theories, also calledtheoretical perspectives orparadigms, give sociologists a general way of thinking about society and help guide the kinds ofquestions they ask.Today, sociologists mainly usethree major theoretical perspectives:

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Study GuideEach perspective explains society and human behavior in a different way. Together, they helpsociologists understand how society influences people and how people influence society.2.1 The Symbolic Interactionist PerspectiveThesymbolicinteractionist perspective, often called symbolic interactionism, focuses on everydaylife. It looks at how people use symbols, what those symbols mean, and how people interact with oneanother.This perspective is based on the idea that people act according to how they interpret the world aroundthem. Although this idea can be traced back to Max Weber, the American philosopherGeorge H.Mead (1863–1931)introduced symbolic interactionism to American sociology in the 1920s.Symbolic interactionists believe that people give meaning to symbols and then behave based onthose meanings. Words are one of the most important symbols. During a conversation, words meansomething to the speaker and, ideally, the same thing to the listener. However, meanings are notfixed. They depend on interpretation. Because of this, misunderstandings can easily occur.Symbols are not limited to words. Anything that represents something else can be a symbol. Forexample, written musical notes are symbols. The marks on a page stand for sounds that create musicwhen played.Symbolic interactionists carefully observe how people act and try to understand the meaningsindividuals attach to their actions and to the symbols used by others.This perspective can be applied to marriage in American society. Marriage includes many symbols,such as wedding rings, vows, a white wedding dress, a wedding cake, flowers, music, and a religiousceremony. Society gives general meanings to these symbols,but individuals may interpret themdifferently. For example, one partner may see a wedding ring as a symbol of endless love, while theother may view it as an unnecessary expense. Differences in interpretation can lead tomisunderstandings.Critics argue that symbolic interactionism focuses too much on small details and ignores the largerpicture of society. By concentrating on individual interactions, it may overlook powerful socialinstitutions and forces that shape people’s behavior.

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Study Guide2.2 The Functionalist PerspectiveThefunctionalist perspective, also called functionalism, views society as a system made up ofinterconnected parts. Each part of society plays a role in keeping the whole system working smoothly.For example, families depend on schools to educate children. Schools prepare children to becomeresponsible workers and citizens. These citizens then pay taxes, which help support the government.In this way, families, schools, and the government all depend on one another.When society functions well, it produces order, stability, and productivity. When problems arise,society adjusts. During an economic recession, for instance, unemployment may increase. As aresult, social programs may be reduced, schools may cut back on activities, and families may spendless money. Over time, society adapts and forms a new balance.Functionalists believe society is held together bysocial consensus, meaning that members ofsociety agree on shared values and goals and work together for the good of the whole.SociologistEmile Durkheimdescribed two types of social cohesion:•Mechanical solidarityoccurs when people share similar values, beliefs, and jobs. This iscommon in simple, traditional societies, such as farming communities. Amish society is anexample.•Organic solidarityoccurs when people are different but depend on one another becausethey perform specialized jobs. This is common in complex, industrial societies, such as largemodern cities.Functionalism was especially popular in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s. One importantfunctionalist wasRobert Merton, who explained that social actions can have two kinds of functions.Manifest functionsare intended and obvious.Latent functionsare unintended and not obvious. Forexample, the manifest function of attending a religious service is worship, but a latent function mightbe building friendships or learning social values.Functionalism has been criticized for ignoring negative effects of social institutions, such as theproblems caused by divorce. Critics also argue that functionalism supports the status quo anddiscourages people from challenging inequality or pushing forsocial change.

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