CTEL Exam Flashcard Study System: CTEL Test Practice Questions and Review (2020)

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Language Structure and Use© Mometrix Media - flashcardsecrets.com/ctelCTEL ExamExplain the difference between phonemes, graphemes, andletters.

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Language Structure and UseAphonemeis the smallest unit of sound in a language that makes adifference in meaning.Phonemes can be written in two different ways. Linguists commonlyrepresent phonemes by using theInternational Phonetic Alphabet,which assigns a different symbol to each sound commonly found inlanguages around the world. A second way to represent a phoneme is byusinggraphemes, which are individual letters or groups of letters thatdepict how a sound is written in a given language. For example, inEnglish, the sound /t/ is written either with a single “t” (as in “tall”) orwith two “t’s” (as in the word “better,”). Thus, English has twographemes, “t” and “tt,” that correspond to the phoneme /t/. Linguistshave a special term, digraph, to refer to any two-letter grapheme, such as“tt” or “ch.”Phonetic alphabets and graphemes are necessary because writtenalphabets do not by themselves provide language learners withknowledge of how to pronounce a given word. Many letters have morethan one pronunciation, and often are silent. In other words, spelling isnot a reliable guide to pronunciation.

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Language Structure and Use© Mometrix Media - flashcardsecrets.com/ctelCTEL ExamContrastphoneticswithphonologyand explain how linguistsrelate one to the other through the application ofphonologicalrules.

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Language Structure and UsePhoneticsis the study of speech sounds in isolation, and phonology isthe study of how speech sounds function in a context—in a syllable, aword, a sentence, or a language as a whole. The speech sounds that eachdiscipline studies are calledphonemes. English, for example, consists ofapproximately 44 unique phonemes, arising from the 26 letters of thealphabet used singly or in combination. A competent English speaker candistinguish between these phonemes. Substituting one for another willresult in a change in meaning—for example, substituting /m/ for /b/ inthe word “ball” results in “mall.”Phonetics considers how individual speech sounds are produced andperceived and might ask which sounds are present in a given language.Phonology, by contrast, would study the ways in which those sounds areused to create larger units of meaning.Phonological rulesare the waysin which sounds change depending on where they occur and how theyare used in speech. For example, the deletion rule states that anunstressed vowel is often deleted in rapid speech, as when the /o/ in“police” is dropped and the word is pronounced as /pleas/.

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Language Structure and Use© Mometrix Media - flashcardsecrets.com/ctelCTEL ExamDiscuss how irregularities in English spelling, as well as theexistence in English of phonetic features such as digraphs,diphthongs, and consonant clusters might present challengesfor English language learners.

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Language Structure and UseStudents of any language benefit if that language haspredictable rulesof grammar, spelling, or pronunciation. Learning is made even easier ifthe student experiencespositive transfer—that is, if features of theirnative language are similar to those in English, and thus reinforce thelearning process.The fact that the 26 letters of the English alphabet combine to formapproximately 44 distinct phonemes will complicate the learning processfor ELLs, as there is no one-to-one correspondence between spelling andpronunciation. For example, the sound /k/ can be written in manydifferent ways in English, as in “cat,” “kite,” and “tack.”Other features of English violate a regular one-to-one correspondence ofletters to sounds.Digraphs, for example, are combinations of two ormore letters to produce a unique phoneme—such as the /ch/ sound inEnglish.Diphthongsare combinations of two or more vowels in a singlesyllable, often resulting in an unpredictable sound—for example, theword “chair” is usually pronounced with an /ur/ sound that is notevident from its spelling.Consonant clustersoccur when two or moreconsonants combine to form a single sound, as with the /wr/ sound in“wreck.” These features render English more difficult for the ELL.

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Language Structure and Use© Mometrix Media - flashcardsecrets.com/ctelCTEL ExamDiscuss how phonemes can be classified based on their locationin a syllable or word.

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Language Structure and UseSyllables typically have two components, an onset and a rime. Theonsetis the phoneme, or sound, that occurs at the beginning of the syllable. InEnglish, only consonants can be onsets. If a syllable begins with a vowelsound, the syllable has no onset. Therimeis the vowel and anyconsonants that follow the onset. Thus, every syllable has a rime, but notnecessarily an onset. For example, the one-syllable word “and” has noonset, only a rime. In the word “bat,” by contrast, the /b/ is the onset, andthe /at/ is the rime.A second way to classify phonemes is by theirorderin a word. The firstphoneme in a word is called thebeginning phoneme, the last phonemeis called theend phoneme, and any phonemes in the middle are calledmedial phonemes. Teachers often promote phonetic awareness inbeginning readers using this classification. For example, the teachermight teach the word “bet” by highlighting the beginning /b/, the ending/t/, and the medial /e/.

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Language Structure and Use© Mometrix Media - flashcardsecrets.com/ctelCTEL ExamDescribe the framework linguists use for describing andclassifying how consonant and vowel sounds are produced.

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Language Structure and UseLinguists who study the physiology of sound production have classifiedthe phonemes according to how they areproduced. Each phoneme isarticulated in a unique way. Consonant and vowel sounds have differentclassification systems.Consonantsare classified according to three criteria: (1) the location inthe vocal tract where they are produced (the descriptive terms used arebilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar, alveopalatal, velar, andglottal); (2) the manner in which they are produced (stops, nasals,fricatives, affricates, approximants, and glides); and (3) whether they arevoiced or unvoiced. For example, the [b] sound is described as a “voiced,bilabial stop,” and the [f] sound is described as a “voiceless, labiodentalfricative.”Allvowelsare voiced, and so the classification of vowels occurs alongtwo dimensions, both of which refer to the position and movement of thetongue during utterance: (1) high, mid, or low; and (2) front, central, andback. Thus, the short vowel [u], as in the word “boot,” is produced highand in the back of the mouth.

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Language Structure and Use© Mometrix Media - flashcardsecrets.com/ctelCTEL ExamExplain why the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) wascreated and describe how linguists use slash marks todistinguish between phonemes and letters.

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Language Structure and UseNo alphabet has a one-to-one correspondence between letters andsounds. In English, for example, 26 letters generate approximately 44distinct phonemes. Nor do any two languages rely on the same system ofsounds, even when they share an alphabet.TheInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which was created in 1888and revised repeatedly since, provides a standard system of symbols forall of the phonemes used in human languages. The existence of the IPAallows linguists to refer to sounds independently to how they arerepresented in a specific language.The IPA uses many symbols derived from the Latin alphabet, but itincludes symbols from other sources, such as the Greek alphabet andeven the Icelandic alphabet.By convention, when linguists want to refer to a phoneme, they place asymbol within slashes or brackets (“/a/” or “[a]”) in order to distinguishit from a letter that might have different sounds in different languages ormultiple sounds in a single language.

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Language Structure and Use© Mometrix Media - flashcardsecrets.com/ctelCTEL ExamDistinguish between the main prosodic features of language(pitch, tone, intonation, and stress), and explain how they differfrom phonemes.

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Language Structure and UseSpoken language relies on differences in sound to create differences inmeaning. The primary source of these sound differences is phonemes.Differences in sound can affect meaning at a level above that ofindividual phonemes, however, by operating on syllables, words, or evensentences. Linguists refer to these asprosodic features of language.The two main prosodic features arepitch(which in turn is divided intotoneandintonation) andstress.Pitch, while technically a difference in the frequency of the vibration ofthe vocal cords, is recognized by listeners as a continuum between lowand high. Many languages use pitch to distinguish between words, inwhich case it is referred to astone. Cantonese, for example, is a tonallanguage. If the pitch rises or falls over the course of a sentence, it isreferred to asintonation. In English, intonation is often used todistinguish a statement from a question.Stressrefers to a difference in force applied to an element of speech,usually a syllable. Multi-syllabic words in English have a standardpattern of stress. With some words, changing the pattern of stress maylead to a change of meaning, as between “con-VERT” and “CON-vert.”

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