Solution Manual for Industrial Safety and Health Management, 7th Edition

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CHAPTER1SOLUTIONSTOEND-OF-CHAPTER EXERCISES1.1.Somestandardsarefrequently cited because these standards cover (1)areasinwhichindustries are having difficulty complying, or (2) areasinwhichenforcement agencies are giving a great deal of attention, orboth.1.2.Manyaspectsaboutthe standards might be useful. The text emphasizes theimportanceofthe"why" behind the standards that do exist.1.3.No.Itisanunattainable goal.Such a strategy fails to recognize theneedfordiscrimination among hazards to be corrected.1.4.(1)Hazardsthatarephysically infeasible to correct.(2)Hazardsthatare physically feasible, but are economicallyinfeasible,tocorrect.(3)Hazardsthatare physically feasible and economically feasible tocorrect.1.5.(1)Causesothermore serious hazards to be overlooked while reacting tolessseriousones.(2)Deterioratescredibility with top management.1.6.Asafetyhazardisacute, causes or threatens to cause injuries, and isusuallymoreobvious than a health hazard.Ahealthhazardischronic, causes or threatens to cause illness in thelongrun,andisusually more subtle than a safety hazard.1.7.Someexamplesafetyhazards:unguardedbelts, pulleys, gears, saws, and punch presses; fires;explosions;open platforms; defective ladders; welding near openflammableorcombustible materials; overloaded or defectivecranes,hoists, or slings; ungrounded electrical equipment;exposedliveelectrical conductors.Someexamplehealthhazards:coaldust,cotton dust, chronic loud noise, welding fumes,asbestos,vinyl chloride, lead fumes, mercury, manganese, cadmium.1.8.Somevalidexamplesare spray paint, coal dust, benzene, and carbondisulfide.1.9.Somevalidexamplesare noise, welding, and radiation.1.10.Healthhazardsareusually more subtle than safety hazards; theindustrialhygienist must look for "unseen" hazards.1.11.Safetyhazardsmayappear more grave, but there are probably many healthhazard-relatedillnesses and deaths which are not documented.1.12.Worktraining,statistics, job placement, industrial relations.1.13.Acomprehensivesafety and health program involves engineering, andplacementofthefunction within the personnel department may restrictauthoritytoomuch.1.14.ThisplacestheSafety and Health Manager in an adversarial position withenforcementofficials.1.15.CPSCconcentrateson the responsibility of the manufacturers of themachinesandequipment, whereas OSHA concentrates on the responsibilityoftheemployerwhoplaces the equipment into use in the workplace.1.16.(NSC)NationalSafety Council1.17.ANSI(AmericanNational Standards Institute)Preparesvoluntarystandards for occupational safety and health amongothertypesofstandards.OSHA adopted many ANSI standards early on,invokingitstemporary right to promulgate "national consensusstandards."

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1.18.OSHAisconcernedwith hazardous exposures to workers, i.e. worker safetyandhealth.EPAisconcernedwith hazardous exposures to the public, particularly asthesehazardsaffect the earth, water, and atmosphere.Manysafetyandhealth hazards inside the plant and outside are the same,orarecausedbythe same chemical agents or physical factors.Thus afirm'scompliancewith both EPA and OSHA regulations are often theresponsibilityofthe same individual.1.19.1-800-CDC-INFO;theagency that responds is, obviously, NIOSH, theNationalInstitutefor Occupational Safety and Health.1.20.PassageofTheOccupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, which createdtheOccupationalSafety and Health Administration (OSHA).1.21.Priortopassageofthe OSHA law occupational health seemed remote andnotofagreatdealof concern.Plant nurses were concerned with firstaidandphysicalexaminations.After OSHA, occupational diseasepreventionroseinimportance.1.22TheBhopal,Indiadisaster in which the release of methyl isocyanategaskilled2500civilians.This incident showed that dangerous workingconditionsdonotjust impact the workers, but everyone around afacility.1.23Reductionsinenergyconsumption, for example, can lower a firm’s bottomlineenergycostwhile decreasing its impact on the environment.1.24Thefourenvironmental issues addresses were global warming, greenengineering,petroleum conservation, and tobacco smoke.1.25Greenengineeringisfocused on the reduction of carbon fuels, whichinturndirectlyimpact global warming.1.26SystemsSafetyisconsidered essential in airlines, aerospace, andhospitals.Theseare industries in which the failure of a system can becatastrophic.1.27SystemsSafetyrecognizes the benefit of such life-cycle planning anddesign,andtheSystem Safety Society is one of the societies dedicatedtothemovement.1.28Achroniceffectisa long-term deterioration due to prolonged exposurewhereasanacuteeffect is a sudden reaction to a severe condition.1.29Asafetyhazardwould be a sudden exposure to sound loud enough to damagehearingwithoneexposure.A health hazard would be continued long-termexposuretosoundabove the PEL which could lead to damage over a courseoftime.1.30Theeffectsofoccupational health fatalities are often delayed whereasoccupationalsafetyfatalities generally occur immediately.1.31Thenationaltradeassociations1.32Theprimarypurposeof such materials is to promote the industryproducts.1.33NIOSH1.34OSHAitself1.35ANSIandNFPA1.36Fearoftriggeringan inspection.For that reason OSHA allows questionstobeposedinahypothetical format.1.37Theaerospaceindustry1.38TheSystemsSafetySociety

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CHAPTER2SOLUTIONSTOEND-OF-CHAPTER EXERCISES2.1.Theachievementofworker safety lies principally in the hands of theworkersthemselvesand their direct supervisors; thus it is principally alinefunction.Safety and health managers, however, are staff positions.2.2.Actingasafacilitator in assisting, motivating, and advising the linefunctioninachieving worker safety and health.2.3.Theytoooftenaresuch emotional crusaders for the cause that they losetheircredibilityand with it their eligibility to be considered a"manager."2.4.Thatsafetymustbeachieved by line personnel facilitated by the stafffunction.2.5.Gototopmanagementto re-determine its level of commitment to safetyandhealth.2.6.Theworkerscompensation system is a state, not federal system. Thesystemisnearly100 years old; the first workers compensation laws wereintroducedintostate legislatures in 1909.2.7.Theostensiblepurpose is to protect the worker by providing statutorycompensationlevelsto be paid by the employer for various injuries thatmaybeincurredbythe worker.Anulteriorfeatureis immunity from additional liability for theemployer,exceptwhere "gross negligence" can be proven.2.8.Managementcontendsthat some risk is inescapable in any line of work.Therefore,theiranswer to the question is no. The worker bears some oftheriskinreturnfor his/her pay for the job.2.9.Theemployerortheemployer's insurance carrier.2.10.Anindustrialsafetyconsultant employed by an insurance company.Theconsultant'sobjective is to keep claims low among clients of hisinsurancecompany.2.11.Astandardizedrecordkeeping system for industrial safety established bytheNationalSafetyCouncil and later superseded by OSHA's system ofrecordkeeping.2.12.Differencesinrecordkeeping requirements for OSHA and its predecessorZ16.1system.Other variations in conditions, such as employment levelsandrecessioncycles impact recordkeeping.2.13.The"lostworkdays"method would not reveal some very serious accidents,especiallyfatalities, that do not cause a loss of a workday.2.14.Onethatiswork-related and requires medical treatment.2.15.22x200,000=44= 14.67150x40x5032.16.Theinjury/illnessincidence rate computation prescribed by OSHA relatesto200,000work-hours (roughly one year for a 100-employee firm), whereasthetraditionalfrequency rate relates to 1,000,000 work-hours (roughlyoneyearfora500employee firm).Also the OSHA injury/illnessincidencerateapplies to all work-related injuries/illnesses whichrequiremedicaltreatment, whereas the traditional frequency rate relatedonlyto"lost-time"cases.2.17.Frequencymeasuresthe numbers of cases per standard quantity of work-hours.Severitymeasuresthe total impact of cases in terms of total "lostworkdays"perstandard quantity of workhours.Seriousnessistheratio of severity to frequency and measures theaverageseriousnessof all cases.Allthreeareobsolete terms now.

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2.18.OSHAForm300a,theannual "Summary of Work-Related Injuries andIllnesses"mustbeposted on February 1 each year and remain posted untilApril30.2.19.Forgeneralrecords:5 years(Chapter 5 will reveal longer retentionrequirementsforcertain records.)2.20.Yes;theycanhelpto discover hazards, but they can also diluteresponsibilityforworkplace safety and health and can degenerate intospyparties.Without adequate orientation, safety and health committeescanoftenbecomeunreasonable.2.21.Directcostsarethe"tip of the iceberg" compared to indirect costs.2.22.(1)Costsofwages paid for time lost by workers who were not injured.(2)Costofdamageto material or equipment.(3)Costofwagespaid for time lost by the injured worker.(4)Extracostofovertime work necessitated by the accident.(5)Costofwagespaid supervisors for time required for activitiesnecessitatedby the accident.(6)Wagecostcaused by decreased output of injured worker afterreturntowork.(7)Costoflearning period of new worker.(8)Uninsuredmedical cost borne by the company.(9)Costoftimespent by higher supervision and clerical workers.(10)Miscellaneouscosts such as public liability claims, rentalequipment,and lost sales.2.23.Noninjuryaccidentsare usually caused by the same types of conditionsandpracticesthatresult in injury accidents.2.24.First-linesupervisors2.25Asix-monthworkperiod = 1000 hours.(a)Generalinjury/illness rate =15*200,00040*1,000=3,000,00040,000= 75(b)Traditionalfrequency rate =4∗200,00040∗1,000=800,00040,000= 202.26TotalInjuryIncident Rate(3+1)∗200,00030∗2,000=800,00060,000= 13.33LWDI1∗200,00030∗2,000=200,00060,000= 3.332.27.(a)Totalincidencerate=(3+1+1+1+1) x 200,00062 x 2000=11.29(b)(According to current OSHA recordkeeping policy, countcalendardays,not just workweek days, i.e. 7 days/wk, not 5 days/wk)Number-of-lost-workdays rate=(7+7+42) x 200,00062 x 2000=90.3(c)LWDI=1 x 200,000=1.662 x 2000(excludes illnesses and all fatalities)2.28.The12first-aidcases are non-recordable.The two illnesses do notenterintothecalculation of the LWDI, but the lost-time injuries would.Therefore,theLWDIwould be calculated as:LWDI=3x 200,000= 6.67 for the 4-month period

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135x(4/12) x 2000Since6.67>3.6,this would indicate that improvement is needed to meettheobjective.However, if no more lost time injuries occurred for theyear(anunlikelyoutcome):LWDI=3x200,000 =300= 2.22135x2000135andtheobjectiveLWDI of 3.6 would easily be met.2.29.Theclassificationof the 12 accident files in this case study is subjecttosomevariationdue to individual judgment.This analysis will assumethefollowingclassification:Columns on the OSHA 300 Log(a)LWDI=3x200,000 = 1 = .33900x 20003(TheLWDIexcludesfatalities, excludes illnesses, and includes all"lost-time"injuries, including those injuries in which the worker has"restrictedworkactivity days," i.e. is temporarily transferred toanotherjob,evenif there are no days away from work.)TotalInjuryrate= (4 - 1) x 200,000 = 3 = .33(excludingfatalities)900 x 20009TotalIllnessrate= (2+0+1+1) x 200,000 = 4 = .44900 x 20009Fatalityrate=1 x 200,000 = 1 = .11900 x 20009Number-of-lost-workdays rate=(70 + 38) x 200,000900 x 2000=108/9=12Specifichazardincidence rate (fractures)= (1 + 1) x 200,000900 x 2000= 2/9 = .22TotalIncidence(including fatalities =(8∗200,000)900𝑥𝑥2000= 8/9 = .89(b)ComparingNational Safety Council Statistics for 2000 (see Figure 2.2ofthetext):FileGHIJKLM1M2M3M4M5M61not recordable2X14X3not recordable4X728X5XX6XX7not recordable8XX9X14X10not recordable11XX12X342XColumn Totals:14033870420101

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Totalincidence(including fatalities).89<<6.8therefore, much safer than the all industry average2.30.Notetoinstructor,asissometimes the case, despite the authors’ best effortstherewasachangetotheOSHAform 300 in the first printing of the Seventh Editionwhichhasbeensubsequentlychanged in subsequent printings.The column K and colun Lwerereversed.Pleasesharetheupdated Figure 2.9 below with your students whenassigningthisproblem.Tocompletethetable,addupthecolumns to get the following totals:(a)Injuryincidence= (4 - 1) x 200,000 = 6(excludesthefatality)50 x 2000(b)Illnessincidence=5 x 200,000 = 1050 x 2000(c)Number-of-lost-workdays rate= (67 + 16) x 200,00050 x 2000(countsrestricted work activity days)= 83 x 200,000=166100,000(d)LWDI=1x200,000 = 250x2000FileGHIJKLM1M2M3M4M5M61Empl AX8X2Empl BX56X3Empl CX14X4Empl DXX5Empl EXX6Empl FXX7Empl GX2X8Empl HX3X9Empl IXXColumn Totals:12331667422001

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(Don'tcount injuries in which there were no lost workdays;alsoexclude fatalities)2.312014premium$120,0002014modifier1.05Unadjustedpremium:$120,000/1.05 = $114,2862016modifier.802016premium:$114,286 x .80 = $91,429Actualsavings:$120,000 - $91,429 = $28,571% savings=($28,571/120,000) x 100% = 23.8%2.32.a.LostWorkdayCases:OSHA300colsH + Ib.CasesInvolvingDays Away From Work & Deaths:OSHA300colsG + Hc.NonfatalCasesWithout Lost Workdays:OSHA300colJd.TotalCases:OSHA300colsG + H + I + J(orthetotal of all of the M columns)e.LostWorkdaysOSHA300colsK + Lf.DaysAwayFromWorkOSHA300colL2.33.Notetoinstructor,asissometimes the case, despite the authors’ besteffortstherewasachangetotheOSHA form 300 in the first printing of the SeventhEditionwhichhasbeensubsequently changed in subsequent printings.The column K andcolunLwerereversed.Pleaseshare the updated Figure 2.9 below with your studentswhenassigningthisproblemTocompletethetable,addupthecolumns to get the following totals:FileGHIJKLM1M2M3M4M5Column totals:1233166742201

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Thefollowingcalculations are compared to National Safety Council(NSC)estimatesreported in Injury Facts, 2016 edition (numbers reportedare2014):CasesInvolvingDaysAwayFromWork&Deaths= (1+2) x 200,000=1.82versus 1.8 (NSC)(colsG+H)165 x 2000Totalrecordablecases= (1+2+3+3) x 200,000 =5.45vs 6.1 (NSC)(colsG+H+I + J)165 x 2000DaysAwayFromWork=16 x 200,000=9.70(colsL)165 x 2000(InjuryFacts, 2016 edition, reports 85,000,000 days away fromworkforinjuriesincurred in the previous year (2001). The total workerforcewasestimatedat approximately 136,500,000. Applying the formula tothenationaldata:DaysAwayFromWork=65,000,000 x 200,000=44.43146,307,000 x 2000Thisfigureis considerably higher than the 9.70 figure calculatedforthedatainthis problem.2.34.SocialMediahas brought about increased scrutiny on companieswithpoorsafetyrecords and is one of the hidden costs from the tip oftheiceberg.2.35.EachyeartheNSC publishes updates for these estimates in InjuryFacts.Studentsmight want to check the library for the latest update.The2016editionshows the following estimates:fatality:$1,000,000workerinjury:$29,0002.36.Ashootingina nightclub killing 49 people.2.37.ActiononSmoking and Health lobbies for OSHA to promulgate astandardonIndoorAir Quality.OSHA has proposed a standard, but as ofearly2018ithadnot been promulgated as a Final Standard.2.38.Workplaceviolence2.39.Thecompanydid preemployment drug screening tests for allapplicantsinathree month hiring period (750 applicants).Surprisingly,halfof the 750 applicants failed the test.The test was aurinalysisdesignedto indicate whether drugs had been used in theprecedingtwoorthree days and was conducted by a hospital laboratoryservice.Thetestresults indicated that the use of marijuana was themostprevalent.ALCOA hired 130 applicants who passed the test andreportedthatasagroup those hired were better workers than those hiredpriortothedrugscreening program.2.40.Thefirmmayface discrimination charges unless it is fair andeven-handedinitspolicies for hiring and employee termination in casesofalcoholordrugabuse.The same rules that are applied to newemployeesshouldbeapplied to existing employees.2.41.No;workplacehomicide is often associated with despair overdownsizingoratermination notice for some other reason.There isevidencethathomicide in the workplace is committed in a methodical andselectiveway.2.42.Althoughpre-employment testing has been shown to be effective inrecruitingdependable and safer employees, the program can run afoul ofTitleVIIoftheCivil Rights Act of 1964 if the testing program isdiscriminatoryagainst females or racial minorities.The EEOC haspublishedguidelines for such programs.Of particular interest is thecomparativefailurerates of the tests when the scores of white males iscomparedtothoseof females or racial minorities.Another consideration

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istheAmericanswith Disabilities Act that protects disabled workers inmuchthesamewayas the Civil Rights Act protects females and racialminorities.2.43.a.controlofsharpsb.effectivesystem of housekeepingc.effectivelaundryd.effectivedisposal of wastee.washing,cleaning, and disinfecting exposed surfacesf.provisionforstorage and consumption of food in areas protected fromexposureg.prohibitionofapplication of cosmetics, lip balm, or contact lensesinexposedareas of the planth.provisionofpersonal protective equipment.2.44.theeyes2.45Thetableisconsidered independent of inflation, as the unit ofmeasureis“weeks”of compensation, not dollars.2.46Toshowaninterest in the well-being of the employee and uncoverfraudulentclaims.2.47Thenumber-of-lost-workdays rate counts all lost workdays (bydefinitiononeormore days for each case, whereas the LWDI is a count ofincidentswithoneor more lost workdays.Since each lost-workdayincidentmusthaveone or more days, it will always be as high or higherthantheLWDI2.48Theintentwasto create a higher level of public visibility ofemployerswithhighinjury rates to “nudge” them to action.This dataalsohelpedOSHAtouse this “big data” to target compliance assistanceandenforcementefforts.2.49Thereisatrend in states allowing employers to opt out ofworker’scompensation programs.This provides savings but opensemployersuptocostly litigation in the event of an injury.2.50Most“gig”workers are not classified as employees but rather ascontractors.Assuch, most are not covered under worker’s compensation.Uberisaleadingcompany with a high number of gig employees.2.51Whileworker’scompensation covers 100% of the medical costsassociatedwithapermanent injury, the payments for permanent disabilitydonotlastforever.Therefore many employers subsidize short-term andlong-termdisability insurance.2.52Manyworkerswho re-enter the workforce do so with permanentinjuriesthatcanon average result in a 15% decrease in earningpotentialgoingforward.2.53Thelegalization of marijuana in some states while still illegalatafederallevelhas caused instances where legal recreational use ofmarijuanahasresulted in failure of random drug tests and employeedismissalinsomecases.2.54No.Anyemployer who can reasonably expect exposure to bloodbornepathogensfortheiremployees is required to have a written exposureplan.2.55In2008,therewas a change in reporting to use hours workedinsteadofemployment-based rates.When comparing fatality data for thelasteightyyearsthese changes in reporting method stand out from thegradualyear-over-year reduction in fatalities.2.56Daysofrestricted work activity.

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CHAPTER3SOLUTIONSTOEND-OF-CHAPTER EXERCISES3.1.Imminentdanger,serious violations, nonserious violations, de minimusviolations3.2.Deminimus3.3.Author'sopinion:Case (a) -- Cat. 1 -- De MinimusCase (b) -- Cat. 3 -- NonseriousCase (c) -- Cat. 8 -- Serious3.4.Thisisagoodexample of a hazard that would be better controlled bytrainingthanbyahard and fast rule.Many people regularly break thisrulebecausetheyhave done so without injury and because the reason isnotwellunderstoodby the general public.The practice can dangerouslydamagetheconnections between the cord and plug.A discontinuity ineithertheneutralor the grounding conductor can cause electrocutionwithoutwarningbya cord and plug which appear outwardly to be safe.3.5.Thisquestionisintended to generate a class discussion to reinforceconceptsofhazardavoidance.The discussion should bring to lightweaknessesinastrategy of using purely an enforcement approach alone.3.6.Enforcement,psychological, engineering, analytical3.7.Thisquestionmaybeused for class discussion.3.8.Unsafeacts88%Ratio = 88:10Unsafeconditions10%Unsafecauses2%100%3.9.(1)Engineeringcontrols(2)Administrativeor work practice controls(3)Personalprotective equipment3.10.cranehoists5:1scaffolds4:1scaffold ropes6:13.11.(1)Generalfail-safe principle--release of drill trigger(2)Fail-safeprinciple of redundancy-- use of both guards and workertraining(3)Principleofworst case--defensive driving course3.12.Murphy'sLawisanobservation of probability over a period of time.Risksofaccidentsare typically low but over a long period of timebecomesignificant.3.13.FMEA(FailureModesand Effects Analysis) is used to trace effects ofindividualcomponent failures on the overall or "catastrophic" failure ofequipment.3.14.Thisexerciseisforpractice in developing fault tree diagrams.A widevarietyofdiagramscan be expected from students, depending upon theirunderstandingofthe fire hazards.The exercise should be evaluated uponthecriteriaoflogical construction, not fact.3.15.

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P[7]=P[1and6]+P[2 and 5] + P[3 and 4] + P[4 and 3]+P[5and2]+ P[6 and 1]=(1/6•1/6)+ (1/6 • 1/6) + (1/6 • 1/6) + (1/6 • 1/6)+(1/6•1/6) + (1/6 • 1/6) = 6(1/36)P[7]=1/63.16.Toxicologyisthestudy of poisons and may include scientific studies inwhichanimalsaredeliberately exposed to the given toxic agent in ordertoobservetheeffect.Epidemiology deals strictly with people byanalyzingthecauses of epidemics of illnesses among populations.3.17.Thefollowingdiagram adds a branch to the tree that considers possiblefaultstothedouble-insulation system. It also removes the branchesthatdealwithfaultsinthe grounding system through the third prong of theplug,becausetheworker would be protected by the insulated case ofthetool.3.18.Proximalcausesareprimary and are direct causes of accidents in theconventionalsense.Distal causes are secondary, more indirect causes,butcanbeasimportant as proximal causes because the distal causescreateandshapethe proximal causes. Management policy should beconsideredadistalcause.3.19.Personalinjuryisnot a certainty, even though a loss incident isunavoidable.Personnel may not be exposed, or the exposure may not beinjurioustopersonnel.Aggravating factors make the loss incidentoutcomemoresevere, and mitigating factors make the outcome less severe.3.20.Zero.Ifthecauses are mutually exclusive, the occurrence of Cause Bprecludestheoccurrence of either Cause A or Cause C.3.21.(a)

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(b)Probability=P[11]=P[5]P[6] + P[6]P[5]=1/6•1/6 + 1/6 • 1/6=1/36+ 1/36 = 2/36(c)Yes;youcanroll a "5" on the first die and "6" on the secondoryoucanroll a "6" on the first die and "5" on the second butyoucan'tdoboth at the same time.One "cause" precludes theoccurrenceofthe other.3.22.Fromatotalplantsafety perspective each of the four causes is possibleanddoesnotpreclude the possibility of occurrence of any of the otherthree.Thereforethey are not mutually exclusive.Fromasingleaccident perspective, the four causes are also not mutuallyexclusive,becauseseveral of the causes or factors could be presentascontributorstothecause of a single accident, such as a fall.3.23.CausesAandBaremutually exclusive because it is impossible for anadequatelysizedguard to be placed both too high and too low at thesametime.3.24.Tangiblecost/incident15,000Intangiblecost/incident250,000Totalcost/incident 265,000Expectedcost/year= Cost per incident x annual incidencefrequencyBeforeinstallation:Expectedcost/year = $265,000 x .01 = $2650Afterinstallation:Expectedcost/year = [$265,000 x .01]½ = $1325Annualbenefit = $13253.25.CostsBenefitsAmortization$15,000Cleaning$1,200Maintenance600Resp eqpmt savings4,000Utilities1,800Short Term Illnesses3,600TotalCosts$17,400Long Term Illnesses6,000Total Benefits$14,800Theconclusionofthe Cost/Benefit analysis is to not install theequipment.Primarybenefitofthe equipment if installed would be the savings on thecostoflongtermillnesses which would be prevented by the equipment.3.26.Answersvarydependent upon analysts' judgment and experience.Thefollowingdataarefrom a survey of 25 experienced managers.

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lowesthighestaveragesample size(a)6107.3622(b)7108.2425(c)296.4325(d)184.5024(e)285.8824(f)172.2025(g)7108.4323(h)294.78233.27.Thepointofirreversibility is the boundary beyond which control islostandalossincidentwill occur.Factors in the region of sphere ofcontrolare:1. Actions2. Limitations3. Conditions3.28.Whentheeventsarenot mutually exclusive; when both events can happenthereisafiniteprobability that both will happen.Therefore, theprobabilitythatboth will occur is non-zero and must be subtracted fromthesumoftheprobabilities that each event will occur.3.29.P[C]=P[A]+P[B]-P[A]P[B]3.30.P[C]=P[A]+P[B]-P[A]P[B]=0.3 + 0.2 -(0.3)(0.2)=0.5 - 0.06=0.443.31.Therearemanyexamples.A few are as follows:GENERALFAILSAFEPRINCIPLE:OSHAstandard1910.217(b)(2) regarding the design of frictionbrakesthatare "self-engaging," i.e., they require force or powerfromanexternal source to disengage, rather than to engage.ALSOOSHAstandard1910.217(b)(13) ".....the control system shall beconstructedso that a failure within the system does not preventthenormalstopping action from being applied to the press..."ANDOSHAstandard1910.179(g)(3)(viii) "Automatic cranes shall be sodesignedthatall motions shall fail-safe if any malfunction ofoperationoccurs."ANDOSHAstandard1910.217(b)(14)(i) "Be so constructed as toautomaticallyprevent the activation of a successive stroke if thestoppingtimeor braking distance deteriorates to a point....."ANDOSHAstandard1910.217(b)(7)(xiv) "....Reactivation of the clutchshallrequirerestoration of normal supply and use of the trippingmechanism(s).PRINCIPLEOFREDUNDANCY:OSHAstandard1910.111(d)(9)(i) "A minimum of two compressorsshallbeprovided either of which shall be of sufficient sizetohandletheloads...."ALSOOSHAstandard1910.134(d)(2)(ii) "The compressor for supplying airshallbeequipped with necessary safety and standby devices."ANDOSHAstandard1910.119, App C, Sect. 13: "It is important to haveabackupcommunication network in case of power failure or onecommunicationmeans fails."ANDOSHAstandard1910.217, App A, Certification/ValidationRequirements.Section A.2.a.(2): "Redundancy, and comparisonand/ordiagnostic checking, exist for the critical items..."PRINCIPLEOFWORSTCASE:OSHAstandard1910.1027(n)(2)(i) "...activity involving cadmiumcannotrelease dust or fumes in concentrations at or above theactionleveleven under the worst-case release conditions."ALSOOSHAstandard1910.217(b)(4)(i) The pedal mechanism shall beprotectedtoprevent unintended operation from falling or movingobjectsorbyaccidental stepping onto the pedal.

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3.32.Oneconceptwouldbe safety factor.A proper safety factor would haveallowedforshockloads that would be anticipated if a large number ofpeoplebegantomove or jump on the skywalk in unison.Anotherengineeringconceptis the failsafe Principle of Worst Case.A properlyappliedWorstCasePrinciple might have considered the possibility thatlargegroupsmightmove in unison.3.33.A“deadmancontrol”is a switching or control mechanism that causesequipmenttoretreat to a safe or inactive mode in the absence of aconsciousactiononthe part of the operator.The typical control is aspring-loadedpushbutton switch as in a hand-held electric drill.Otherexamplesofequipment, not mentioned in the book, would include floorwaxing/buffingmachines, hand-held saws, motorcycle throttles, andautomobileaccelerators.3.34.Therearemanyexamples of the use of the concept of redundancy.Oneexampleistheprovision for emergency backup power generators in thedesignofhospitals.Another example that applies to occupational safetyandhealthistheprovision of independent, battery-powered emergencylightingtoprovideillumination of means of egress from buildings in theeventofpowerfailure.3.35.ThePrincipleofWorst Case.3.36.Thewholeconceptof preventive maintenance is to service and repairorreplacepartsBEFORE they fail, not afterwards.FMEA can be used toexaminethefailuremodes and provide the basis for prediction of theconsequencesoffailure.Such analyses are valuable in justifying thereplacementofcomponents or systems before they fail. Such analysis andreplacementcanbeof critical importance when failure of the system canresultininjurytopersonnel.3.37.Whetherasubstanceis “poison” or not depends upon the degree ofexposureorconcentration of exposure.The field of toxicology studiestheeffectsofpoisons in various concentrations upon the body.Anexampleofaseemingly harmless poison is acetic acid, the principalingredientofordinary vinegar.Ingested in small concentrations, aceticacidisapopularfood additive.However, as the concentrationincreases,aceticacid becomes poison to humans.Irving Sax’s DangerousPropertiesofIndustrial Materials states that acetic acid is a moderatepoisonbyinhalation, oral, and dermal routes.It is described as“caustic,irr(itant), can cause burns, lachrymation, and conjunctivitis.Itattackstheskineasily and can cause dermatitis and ulcers.Inhalationcausesirr(itation) of mu(cous) mem(branes).”3.38.Pharmacokineticsisthe study of absorption, disposition, metabolism, andeliminationofchemicals in the body.It’s application to occupationalsafetyandhealthis in the study of the effects of industrial chemicalsuponthebody,whether these chemicals are inhaled, ingested, orcontactedbytheskin.3.39.Epidemiologyisuseful to occupational safety and health in assisting inunderstandingthelink between observed occupational diseases and theircauses.3.40.Toxicologyandepidemiology studies are typically performed byresearcherswhosestudies may be used as the basis for the promulgationofnewstandards.Safety and Health Managers usually do not perform suchstudiesthemselves.They may however use the results of such studies tosubstantiatethepsychological approach or to justify an engineeringapproachtosolveaparticular problem.3.41.Thisquestionisintended to generate discussion or perhaps even debate.Certainlymoremoney has been spent on dealing with asbestos hazards ($20billion/year)ascompared with expenditures in dealing with radon ($0.1billion/year).Estimates of asbestos related fatality rates range from 0to8deathsperyear, and for radon, perhaps as many as 20,000 cancerdeathsperyear,according to Jeremy Main (ref Main). Of course, someuncertainlyexistsin estimating the causes of deaths which have

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Solution Manual for Industrial Safety and Health Management, 7th Edition - Page 16 preview image

occurred.3.42.APoissonProcess is a random event with a constant hazard ofoccurrence.Murphy’s Law states that “If anything can go wrong, it will.Thedesignofasystem must consider the possibility of the occurrence ofsomechanceeventthat can have an adverse effect on safety and health.3.43.ThePrincipleof“Eliminate”3.44.Guardsprotectpersonnel from the hazard, while barriers keeppersonneloutofthe dangerous area.3.45Thepossibilitythatthe warning will be ignored must be considered.3.46Thewarninglabel must be used sparingly so that it is notignored.Alternatesolution would be to engineer out the hazard.3.47.Theenforcementapproach would be much more palatable to thepubliciftheenforcing agency would spend more time analyzing accidenthistories.Thatway, citations would be written only for the mostimportantviolations. The psychological approach could also bestrengthenedagreat deal by substantiating persuasive appeals withactualresultsofaccidents. The engineering approach needs accidentanalysistoknowwhere the problems are and to design a solution to dealwithalloftheaccident mechanisms.3.48.Theenforcement approach forced motorcycle riders to wear helmets,butthepsychological approach has been most effective in convincing themofthebenefitandactually causing riders to use them.3.49.TopManagementsupport is just the beginning.If management doesnotshowtheircommitment to safety and health through their prioritiesandactions,thesafety program will be largely ineffective.3.50.Eliminate,Substitute, Reduce or Slow Down, Guard, Barriers, Warn,WarningLabels,Filters, Exhaust Ventilation, and Human Interface.3.51.Theprimarybenefitis in visualizing causal relationships.3.52OSHAcitedimminent danger which allows OSHA to seek a courtinjunctiontoceaseoperations or remove the hazard immediately due tothedangeritpresents.

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