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Nursing Research In Canada: Methods, Critical Appraisal, And Utilization, 3rd Canadian Edition Solution Manual

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    The Role of Research in Nursing CHAPTER OVERVIEW Chapter 1 examines the role of research in a practice discipline; the historical foundations of nursing research; the relationships among research, education, and practice; the roles of professional nurses in the research process according to their level of educational preparation; and future trends and priorities for nursing research. It introduces students to their role as research consumers and high- lights how consumers of research contribute to the development of evidence-informed nursing practice. The authors emphasize that baccalaureate graduates must be able to read research critically and determine when a body of research is ready for use in practice. Nurses prepared at the master’s or doctoral level conduct research and use its findings. In general, this chapter raises students’ awareness of their role as consumers of nursing research. It also fosters an appreciation of the historical evolution of nursing research, that is, where nursing has been and where it is projected to be in terms of research. LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you will be able to do the following: • State the significance of research to the practice of nursing. • Identify the role of the consumer of nursing research. • Discuss the differences in trends within nursing research in Canada. • Describe how research, education, and practice are related to one another. • Evaluate the nurse’s role in the research process as it relates to the nurse’s level of education. • Identify future trends in nursing research. • Formulate the priorities for nursing research in the twenty-first century. INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL : C H A P T E R 1

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    2 CHAPTER 1 The Role of Research in Nursing TEACHING STRATEGIES As a teacher of nursing students, you can facilitate your students’ awareness of, interest in, and ap- preciation of research. The teaching strategies identified in this section are intended to assist you in helping students become aware of nursing re- search and its relationship to clinical practice. 1. Critical Thinking Challenges The following lists of questions are intended to facilitate review of chapter content and to foster the critical thinking skills needed to fulfill the role of research consumer: RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING • What is nursing research? • What is the meaning of the term consumer ? • What is the research role of the registered nurse? How does this role compare with that of a nurse who has a master’s degree? A doctorate? • How would you define evidence-informed practice ? ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS • How does nursing research differ from the research of other disciplines? • What does it mean to be a consumer of nursing research ? • How does nursing research contribute to the development of clinical skills, to the overall practice of nursing, and to professionalism? 2. Allaying Students’ Anxiety As stated in the Introduction to the Instructor’s Manual , students often approach a course in re- search with preconceived notions about the na- ture and difficulty of the subject. Therefore, you should establish a nonthreatening environment. It may help to begin by encouraging students to ex- press their concerns and anxieties about the sub- ject matter. Sharing the responses of students in your other classes can initiate such a discussion. This strategy helps students realize that they are not alone in their feelings and that you as the teacher are aware of their needs and are concerned about them. This type of open discussion also can give you an idea of students’ learning needs and major areas of potential difficulty. Through this discussion, misconceptions can be addressed and clarifi ed right away. 3. Making Research Relevant to Practice If research concepts have not been incorporated in previous courses, or even if they have, students may not be aware of the relationship between research and practice. A variety of teaching strat- egies can be used to facilitate this awareness. Students have found the use of numerous clin- ical examples during discussions of the role of research in nursing to be particularly enriching. For example, you might ask your students about the techniques they use to give intramuscu- lar injections. After several students describe their technique(s), you can ask them to discuss where they obtained their knowledge and whether they believe these techniques are valid. You might then explain that, although research supporting the theoretical principles related to the administration of intramuscular injections has existed for 20 years, findings have not been universally applied in nurs- ing practice. More specifically, the effect of pos- itioning (internal rotation of the femur for giving injections in the dorsogluteal site) was first stud- ied by nursing in 1979 by Kruszewski, Lang, and Johnson. Their study, titled “Effect of positioning on discomfort from intramuscular injections in the dorsogluteal site,” supported the hypothesis that “Patients who are placed in prone positions with femurs internally rotated while receiving an intramuscular injection in the dorsogluteal site will report less intense discomfort than patients placed in prone positions with femurs externally rotated” (Kruszewski, Lang, & Johnson, pp. 103–105).

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    CHAPTER 1 The Role of Research in Nursing 3 In 1982, Rettig and Southby supported the effect of proper positioning in reducing discom- fort from dorsogluteal injections. In more recent research, Cocoman and Murray (2008) completed a comprehensive review of the practice for intra- muscular injections and discuss the often contra- dictory available evidence. 4. Involving Guest Speakers You may want to invite a guest speaker who has a background in historical research or an in-depth knowledge of nursing history to address the his- torical evolution of nursing research. Such a per- son can make the subject matter come alive by, for example, interspersing little-known anecdotes about prominent nurses involved in the develop- ment of nursing research. 5. Providing Experiential Learning Activities a. The Evolution of Nursing Research: A Game The purpose of this learning activity is to inject some spice into what students generally perceive as a dry subject: the evolution of nursing research. Student objectives for the learning activity: • Relate an historical event to its time and place or person. • Recall milestones in the evolution of nursing research. Directions for implementation . This activity is a modified version of Jeopardy , a popular TV game show. Be sure to explain clearly how the game will be played before starting. Depending on the number of students in your class, you may have all students participate at once in teams or have some students act as the “audience” while others take the role of contestants. Form a panel of three students or three teams of students (a team may consist of two to four players). You will need index cards, four bells or buzzers, and a score sheet with marker or board with chalk. Create three sets of index cards: set 1 will contain the years that various historical events took place; set 2 will contain the events themselves; and set 3 will contain the places, per- sons, or outcomes related to those events. Each set of cards should be a different colour. Key the cards in each set to their related cards in the other two sets by marking them with the same numbers. As an example, in 1932 (date on card #23 in set 1) the Weir report was published (event on card #23 in set 2) and recommended changes in nursing education (outcome on card #23 in set 3). The instructor acts as game show host. Contestants take turns picking one of the three categories. The instructor holds up and reads a card from that pile. Contestants then have to provide an answer in the form of a ques- tion from the other two sets. For example, if the contestant picked the card from set 1 with the date “1932,” he or she could correctly respond in ques- tion form with the following: “In what year was the Weir report published?” If the contestant picked the card from set 3 with the outcome “Recommended changes in nursing education,” the response might be: “What was the recommendation from the Weir report? The game begins with the instructor picking a card and reading it. The contestant or team who presses the buzzer (or rings the bell) first is given the fi rst chance to respond. If that contestant or team provides the correct answer, another card is chosen and play continues. If, on the other hand, the contestant or team who buzzes in first gives an incorrect answer, the other contestants or teams are given a chance to answer correctly. Once the question is answered correctly, the game con- tinues as before. The instructor or another student may keep score on a flip chart or board. Score 1 point for each correct answer. The instructor and students should decide together on a prize before beginning the game.

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    4 CHAPTER 1 The Role of Research in Nursing BOX 1-1

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    Theoretical Framework CHAPTER OVERVIEW Chapter 2 introduces students to the nature of knowledge, both from nursing and other disciplines, discussed within the context of worldview. Philosophies of research and science are shown to form the basis for beliefs and assumptions that guide the selected approach to studying research problems. The link to research is demonstrated through a critical thinking decision path. Next, students are introduced to frameworks for research, providing at the outset an example of a clinical situation that clearly shows the relationship between practice and research. This is fol- lowed by a section that illustrates how theory links research and practice. Inductive and deductive approaches to science are described, using the earlier clinical example. Models are described as a way to connect concepts and develop hypotheses. Reference is made to the idea of a “ladder of abstraction” that can be used to gain a research perspective and relate concepts, theories, and frameworks. Theory is defined, and the purpose of a theoretical rationale is conveyed as a context in which to examine problems. More specifically addressed are types of theories—grand, midrange, and microrange—to introduce readers to theory as a framework to answer nursing questions. A focus on nursing knowledge and nursing theory development can provide students with the frame of reference that is so necessary to help nursing continue to define what it is, how it is unique, and how it differs from other disciplines. Conceptual and theoretical frameworks are differentiated, and conceptual and operational def- initions are illustrated for six different concepts. Criteria for critiquing a theoretical framework are identified to assist students in the development of their roles as research consumers. INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL : C H A P T E R 2

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    6 CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, the student should be able to do the following: • Define key concepts in the philosophy of science. • Identify and differentiate between theoretical/empirical, aesthetic, personal, sociopolitical, and ethical ways of knowing. • Identify assumptions underlying the post-positivist, critical, and interpretive/constructivist views of research. • Compare inductive and deductive reasoning. • Differentiate between conceptual and theoretical frameworks. • Describe how a framework guides research. • Differentiate between conceptual and operational definitions. • Describe the relationships among theory, research, and practice. • Discuss levels of abstraction related to frameworks guiding research. • Describe the points of critical appraisal used to evaluate the appropriateness, cohesiveness, and consistency of a framework guiding research.

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    CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework 7 TEACHING STRATEGIES The research consumer role should be expanded in discussions about the development of nurs- ing knowledge. At this point, students can begin to engage actively in the consumer role to “test the waters” in relation to the critical appraisal of knowledge derived from various sources. 1. Critical Thinking Challenges a. Stimulating Critical Thinking The following questions may serve to stimulate critical thinking about material related to various sources of knowledge: RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING What are the two main paradigms of research? • What are the major sources of human knowledge? • How do qualitative and quantitative approaches to research differ? • How are practice and research linked? • What is the difference between induction and deduction? • How would you define model ? • How would you define theory ? ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS • What are your beliefs about nursing? About health? About human behaviour? Give ex- amples of how you think these beliefs influ- ence your clinical practice. • What scientific paradigm do you feel most comfortable with? Why do you feel that way? • Consider a nursing intervention you have used. On what assumptions is it based? • What are your beliefs about nursing? About health? About human behaviour? Give ex- amples of how you think these beliefs might influence your approach to research. • How does theory influence the selection of study design? b. Use of Discussion Questions The use of discussion questions can foster critical thinking in relation to the parameters of a well- supported, logical, and clearly articulated theor- etical framework. It also can serve as a means by which to meet the learning outcomes identified for Chapter 2. The following questions can be used to guide the discussion: RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING • What is the most prominent type of research conducted until recently in nursing research? • How would you differentiate a conceptual from an operational definition? • What is an assumption? • What is the purpose of a theoretical frame- work? • What is the ladder of abstraction? • What are the central phenomena of concern to nursing? ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS • What nursing theories or models have you heard or learned about? • How useful are they for practice? • How would you evaluate the appropriateness of a particular operational definition? • How are hypotheses related to models and theories? 2. Using the Learner’s Previous Experience a. Everyday Experiences as a Consumer A “warm-up” exercise used with beginning re- search students involves an everyday experience, for example, how one determines which sham- poo to purchase. The purpose of this exercise is to show that different sources of information support how decisions are made. Students are asked what factors go into making this decision, and a list is written on a chalkboard, overhead

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    8 CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework projector, or easel. Common responses focus on ingredients, media promotion, bottle colour, smell, cost, and goal for use (e.g., dandruff re- moval, conditioning). The use of personal know- ledge derived from various sources to make deci- sions is related to problem solving typically used in research. b. Comparing and Contrasting Processes Used to Generate Knowledge Although students can identify how they make decisions in personal and clinical situations, they are less familiar with the scientific or research approach to generating knowledge. Comparing and contrasting the research process with the problem-solving process, which is familiar to students, is a strategy we have used to facilitate learning this content. An overhead or handout can be used to show the steps typical of these processes. (1) First, the problem-solving process is presented to students with specific emphasis on its relation to the nursing process, as follows: PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS • An obstacle to goal achievement is perceived. • The underlying difficulty is identified and stated. • Additional data are collected to validate the difficulty. • Possible solutions are suggested and evaluated. • The most plausible solutions are attempted. • The solution is evaluated in relation to elim- ination of the original obstacle. NURSING PROCESS • An assessment of data is made. • A patient health problem is identified, and a nursing diagnosis is formulated. • Additional data are collected to validate the diagnosis. • Possible interventions are suggested and evaluated. • The most plausible interventions are imple- mented. • The patient’s response is evaluated in relation to his or her goals. (2) Next, the following characteristics of the scientific method and the problem-solving process are compared and contrasted: SCIENTIFIC METHOD • Control of extraneous influencing factors • Problem solving • Evidence based on “objective” reality • Purpose—to make a contribution to general knowledge PROBLEM SOLVING • No control of extraneous influencing factors • Does not necessarily involve research • May include subjective bias in investigation of problem • Concerned with a situation-specific solution (3) Finally, a clinical situation is used to emphasize the difference between problem solving and using research to generate knowledge. For example, a nurse may notice that Mrs. X has a pressure ulcer. Her statement of the situation- specific problem might be as follows: “How can further development of the ulcer be prevented, and how can the ulcer be healed?” If the nurse observes the development of pressure ulcers in many patients over time, he or she may ask the research question, “What is the most effective method for preventing pressure ulcers?” 3. Providing Experiential Learning Activities a. Identifying the Basis of Nursing Techniques/ Protocols This learning activity provides students with an opportunity to question the theoretical basis of standard nursing interventions.

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    CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework 9 Student objectives for the learning activity: • Based on the findings of this clinical exercise, identify the bibliographical sources used in the development of a selected nursing technique/ protocol. • Determine whether or not the nursing tech- nique/protocol was based on research. • Suggest potential problems that may arise from using non–research-based nursing tech- niques/protocols. Directions for implementation . Assign this exer- cise at the beginning of the course. Have students select a nursing protocol/technique (such as urinary catheterization or intravenous maintenance) from a clinical agency’s policy and procedure manual. (Explain that they may obtain a copy of the select- ed protocol from the agency’s nursing or nursing education office.) Ask them to determine by whom the protocol (procedure) was written. This infor- mation may be obtained from an in-service edu- cator or nursing administrator. Direct students to request an interview with one or more individuals who are involved in developing practice protocols for the agency. The purpose of the interview is to determine the basis for the existing protocol. Sug- gested interview questions include the following: • Can you explain how protocols are written in your agency? • On what information was this specific protocol based? • Are there any references that will give me a better understanding of the rationale for the practices included in the protocol? After the interview, students should submit a brief paper that describes the experience and states a conclusion about whether or not the protocol is research-based. On completion of the clinical exercise, stu- dents may also be asked to present their findings in class. During the discussion period it is important to consider the following questions: • Was any reference to research made, either by the interviewee or in the protocol itself? • If no reference is made or if the reference is a non-research source, how does one know that the selected technique/protocol is valid? • What then is the basis of the selected practice? • What is the value of research support of the se- lected technique/protocol or for any technique/ protocol? 4. Using Diagrams to Show Relationships Students respond to visual representations be- cause diagrams often clarify a potentially confus- ing topic. When using examples in discussions about concepts, theory, research, and hypothesis development, you should map out specific rela- tionships. Diagrams that clearly identify the vari- ables being studied and the relationships between them will enhance students’ understanding of the process used to summarize literature and arrive at hypotheses. In Figure 2-5 below, the link be- tween the independent variables (stress, social support, coping) and dependent variable (health outcomes) is illustrated. The figure outlines the process through which a supportive interven- tion influences the health outcomes of homeless youth. Locate the article and work with the stu- dents to understand how the framework informed the hypothesized relationships. 5. Providing Experiential Learning Activities FORMULATING DEFINITIONS This learning activity is designed to give stu- dents experience in developing operational definitions in an effort to increase their ability to critique the definitions they read in research reports.

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    10 CHAPTER 2 Theoretical Framework Student objectives for the learning activity: • Construct a conceptual definition. • Construct an operational definition. • Evaluate an operational definition in terms of clarity and inclusion of an index of measurement. Directions for implementation . Identify or ask stu- dents to name concepts. Select four to six of these concepts for students to define, both conceptually and operationally, using a library and other resour- ces. Students can start with a dictionary definition and then read the work of a theorist who has exam- ined the concept. To make this activity manageable for students, you can have each choose one of the identified concepts to define. Another option is to have only some students (equal to the number of concepts to be defined) involved in this particular learning activity, while others can be engaged in different learning activities at other times in the re- search course. This activity also can be a written assignment completed out of class and then shared at a subsequent class session. You can also include the construction of an operational definition as an item on an examination. Guidelines for discussion . After students share their defi nitions with the class, you can focus on the evaluation of each definition. Of course, stu- dents should be actively involved in the evalua- tion discussion. You can prompt students by asking them whether each definition is clear and unambiguous and to identify the specific index of measurement that operationalizes the definition. FIGURE 2-5 Model of conceptual foundation. From Stewart, M., Reutter, L., Letoumeau, N., & Makwarimba, E. (2009). A support intervention to promote health and coping among homeless youths. Canadian Journal of N ursing Research, 41(2), 54–77.

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    INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL: C H A P T E R 3 Critical Reading Strategies: Overview of the Research Process CHAPTER OVERVIEW Chapter 3 begins by emphasizing the need to use critical thinking and critical reading skills when reading a research article. Both concepts are defined and discussed as a means to help students more effectively read and understand research articles. The authors separate the process of critical reading into four levels, or stages, of understanding: preliminary, comprehensive, analysis, and synthesis. Strategies to facilitate each stage of understanding are presented. A section of Chapter 3 addresses and validates the difficulties perceived by a novice reader of research. A major portion of this chapter is devoted to describing the format and style of research reports. The authors walk the reader through each step of the research process, indicating how and where to find related content in published research and in this textbook. Examples from published studies are presented to bring abstract discussion to a concrete level. LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, the student should be able to do the following: • Identify the steps that researchers use to conduct quantitative and qualitative research. • Identify the importance of critical thinking and critical reading for the reading of research articles. • Identify the steps associated with critical reading. • Use the steps of critical reading to review research articles. • Use identified strategies to critically read research articles. • Use identified critical thinking and critical reading strategies to synthesize critiqued articles. • Identify the format and style of research articles.

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    12 CHAPTER 3 Critical Reading Strategies: Overview of the Research Process TEACHING STRATEGIES Because practice is required to develop skill in the use of critical thinking and critical reading, it is essential to engage the learner in dialogue and experiential learning activities. Clarification of these concepts through discussion should there- fore be followed by in-class practice, so that you can facilitate students’ use of these essential skills. 1. Critical Thinking Challenges The following discussion questions provide a guide for reviewing the content of Chapter 3 and helping students to think about their past use of critical thinking and reading skills: RECALL AND UNDERSTANDING • What is critical thinking? • What is critical reading? • How would you define the stages of critical reading? • What strategies facilitate comprehensive under- standing of a research report? • What questions are helpful to ask when ana- lyzing a research report? • What are the main sections of a research report? How do you know them when you see them? ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS • How have you used critical thinking skills in the past? • What general assumptions have you made about the literature you have read for other courses? • Compare and contrast critical reading with reading for pleasure. • How does a dialogue with the text enhance your ability to understand its meaning? 2. Questioning by the Socratic Method Socratic questioning involves challenging stu- dents to find their own answers to a dilemma and helping them accept that not all questions have “right” answers. It goes beyond recall of facts or descriptions of concepts by encouraging students to think critically about their own ideas as they are challenged by opposite points of view. This is a classic technique and was first applied to teach- ing nursing research by Sakalys (1985). She sug- gested that the questions asked in the Reflective Judgment Interview (RJI), developed by King and Kitchener, are consistent with questioning by the Socratic method. The RJI poses dilemmas with two conflicting statements, followed by stan- dard questions that are intended to elicit students’ opinions about the issue and their rationale for the stand they take. The dilemmas contained in the RJI are not clin- ically oriented, but you can develop ones that are relevant to the research consumer role. A dilemma should be read aloud to the class while students read along from a copy. The questions are then posed, and students are encouraged to share their beliefs, opinions, and hypotheses relevant to the issue. 3. Providing Experiential Learning Activities a. Developing Critical Reading Skills The purpose of this in-class group exercise is to actively engage students in critical dialogue about written material. Based on the Intra-Act procedure for critical reading (Hoffman, 1979), this learn- ing activity fosters “… problem-solving, critical analysis, and metacognitive awareness while at- tending to course content” (Van Dyk & Jensen, 1990). Student objectives for the learning activity: • Identify the main ideas of a text selection. • Engage in the process of valuing by forming opinions about the selection. • Differentiate quickly formed opinions from those arrived at by critical analysis of the text and dialogue with peers.

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    CHAPTER 3 Critical Reading Strategies: Overview of the Research Process 13 Directions for implementation . Choose a rela- tively simple research report for in-class reading. The report should be no more than four to five pages and should be simple versus complex in its presentation. Form small groups (four to six stu- dents) and appoint a student from each group to be the leader. In choosing a group leader, keep in mind that he or she should possess the ability to initiate and sustain discussion. Provide a copy of the report to each study. Provide a handout for students that includes a description of the Critical Reading Process (see Table 3-1 in the core text), the appropriate critical appraisal table (18-1 or 19-1 in the core text), and the Intra-Act sheet (see sample below). Explain the purpose and methods of the exercise before proceeding with the follow- ing phases. Comprehending Research Articles Begin this activity by instructing students to use the highlights of critical reading process strat- egies to read the article. The focus will be on preliminary and comprehensive understanding, as this phase of the activity is intended to help students build a frame of reference for the text. The group leader’s responsibility is to summar- ize the text, encourage group members to contrib- ute additional information about what was read, or ask questions to clarify the main ideas of the selection. This phase should be limited to 15 to 20 min- utes for reading and 10 minutes for discussion. Step 1: Strategies for preliminary understanding • Review critiquing guidelines from your text and keep these in mind as you read. • Review the title, headings, and subheadings, cap tions under pictures, charts, graphs, or maps. • Turn each heading into a question that you attempt to answer. • Read the introduction and discussion sec- tion of the article. • Highlight or underline on the photocopy any new terms, unfamiliar terms, and sig- nifi cant sentences. • Look up the definitions of new terms, and write them on the photocopy. • Highlight or underline identified steps of the research process. Step 2: Strategies for comprehensive understanding • Identify the main idea or theme of the arti- cle; state it in your own words in one or two sentences. • Before critiquing the article, make sure you understand the main points of each re- ported step of the research process that you identified. Step 3: Group Think The leader should next shift the discussion from the ideas contained in the text selection to the group’s personal reactions and values related to the content of the reading material. (This shift often occurs nat- urally.) All members should be encouraged to share their personal impressions and opinions. This phase should be limited to 10 minutes. Step 4: Valuation phase Each class member is then asked to remove an Intra-Act sheet that contains four value statements that you previously wrote about the research article (see sample below). These statements should reflect opinions about the article and/or be a vehicle for providing new insights about its meaning of the findings from the article. Instruct students to mark either A (agree) or D (disagree) for each statement under their own name. This phase is intended to help students derive and integrate the personal meaning that the text has for them. When critiquing the theoretical framework for a quantitative article, one example may include: The framework of this article is not consistent with a nursing perspective or It is difficult to link the frame- work to the hypothesis outlined by the author(s) .

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    14 CHAPTER 3 Critical Reading Strategies: Overview of the Research Process Students should next engage in discussion about the statements on the game sheet (approxi- mately 10 minutes). Based on the discussion, students should then be asked to predict how each of the other group members responded to the value statements by placing an A or D under each person’s name for each statement. Step 5: Reflective phase Begin this phase by having students score the game sheets. Group members should then take turns sharing how each responded and how each predicted the others would respond. As the dis- cussion takes place, students should check wheth- er their predictions agreed with other members’ actual responses. During this phase, your role is that of a facilita- tor, rephrasing students’ comments for validation, summarizing how students responded, but not making value judgments about students’ opinions or comments. This is a time to allow students to reflect on what they have learned in terms of content and process. Step 6: Debriefing phase Afterward, debrief the class by posing the follow- ing questions: • What did you learn from participation in Intra- Act? • Why must all group members participate? • How might discussion improve the next time we use this method? These questions attempt to sensitize students to the purpose of the exercise (critical reading) and to the role that collegial dialogue plays in help- ing an individual to clarify his or her own ideas. Intra-Act Activity Sheet Name: Date: Total Score: Percentage of Correct Predictions: Directions: Write the names of all members of the group, including yourself, in the boxes at the top of the columns (one name per column). Then read the statements. Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the statement by circling either (A) for agree or (D) for disagree. Then predict the responses of the other members of your group by doing the same thing. Once all members of your group are finished, score the sheets and discuss why you agreed or disagreed with the statements. Name Statement A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D A D

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    CHAPTER 3 Critical Reading Strategies: Overview of the Research Process 15

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