Class Notes For We The People, 13th Edition

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IM–1 |1© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.Chapter 1CriticalThinkingand Political Culture:Becoming a Responsible CitizenLearning ObjectivesHaving read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following:•Understandcriticalthinking, and what political science can contribute toit.•Identify the core values underlying American political culture.•Discuss the U.S. immigration policy.•Definegovernmentand politics.•Compare and contrast the various types of government.•Demonstrate knowledge of the origins of American democracy.•Describe key ideologies in American politics.Chapter OutlineI.Learning to ThinkCriticallyA.Obstacles toCriticalThinkingB.What Political Science Can Contribute toCriticalThinkingII.Political Culture: Americans’ Enduring BeliefsA.Core Values: Liberty, Individualism, Equality, and Self-GovernmentB.The Limits and Power of Americans’IdealsIII.Politics and Power in AmericaA.A Democratic SystemB.A Constitutional SystemC.A Free-Market SystemD.Who Governs?IV.The Text’s OrganizationV.SummaryFocus and Main PointsContemporary American government is placed in historical perspective in this chapter. Thevalue of political science in examining the development of American politics since the country’searliest years is examined briefly, and concepts such as power, pluralism, and constitutionalismthat are central to the study of government and politics are alsodefined and discussed.Americanvalues like individualism, equality, and liberty are also discussed, as well as the ways thoseideals have often failed in practice.In addition, the value ofcriticalthinking and the ability of

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IM–1 |2© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.political science to help developcriticalthinking areexamined.Constitional government and thefree-market system are examined as organizing principles for the development of the U.S.political system. The main points of this chapter are as follows:•The development ofcriticalthinking is important for functioning democracies, which relyon the informed choices of citizens for the formation of government.There are powerfulobstaclestocriticalthinking, such as individual unwillingness to develop it, changingpatterns of media consumption, and “spin” by political leaders. Political science is adiscipline that can help developcriticalthinking among students and also lead to a fullerunderstanding of political phenomena.•Every country hasitsdistinctive political culture, a widely shared and deep-seated beliefsystem.National identity in many countries is taken from the common ancestry andkinship they share. Americans are linked not by a shared ancestry but by the country’spolitical culture as the foundation of its national identity.Liberty, individualism, equality,and self-governmentare America’s core political ideals, though they have been uneven inpractice.•Politics is the process through which a society settles its conflicts. Those who win inpolitical conflict are said to have power, and those leaders that have gained the legitimacyto use that power have authority. The play of politics in the United States takes place inthe context of democratic procedures,constitutionalism, and the free-market system.Theorists differ in explaining how power is wielded, using elements of majoritarianism,pluralism, corporate power, and elite rule as explanatory models.•Politics in the United States is characterized by a widespread sharing of power through ahighly fragmented governing system with extensive checks and balances, a high degree ofpluralism, and an extraordinary emphasis on individual rights.The free-market system isalso a powerful organizing factor in American political culture and development.Chapter SummaryCriticalthinkingis the process through which conclusions are reached; itinvolves determiningwhat can reasonably be believed and then using the information to reach a thoughtful conclusion.Criticalthinking is a key to responsible citizenship, but many citizens avoid it by virtue ofpaying scant attention to politics. The tools of political science can contribute to effectivecriticalthinking, though many obstacles to critical thinking exist, including a recent rise in the level ofmisinformation.The United States is a nation that was formed on a set of ideals. Liberty, individualism, equality,and self-government are foremost among these ideals. These ideals became Americans’ commonbond and today are the basis of their political culture. Although imperfect in practice, theseideals have guided what generations of Americans have tried to achieve politically.

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IM–1 |3© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.Politicsis the means by which society settles its conflicts and allocates the resulting benefits andcosts.The basis of politics is conflict over scarce resources and competing values. Those whohave power win out in this conflict and are able to control governing authority and policychoices.Unlike authoritarian regimes, theUnited Statesis a democracy withstrong rules thatmanage the competition overpower and policyand keep government power in check.Politics in the United States plays out through rules of the game that include democracy,constitutionalism, and free markets. Democracy is rule by the people, which in practice refers toa representative system of government in which the people rule through their elected officials.Constitutionalism refers to rules that limit the rightful power of government over citizens. Afree-market system assigns private parties the dominant role in determining how economic costsand benefits are allocated.Major Conceptsauthoritarian governmentA form of government in which those in power openly repress their opponents in order tostay in power.authorityThe recognized right of officials to exercise power as a result of the positions they hold.confirmation biasThe tendency of individuals to interpret information in ways that confirm what theyalready believe.constitutionalismThe idea that there are lawful limits on the power of government.corporate powerThe power that corporations exercise in their effort to influence government and maintaincontrol of the workplace.critical thinkingReflective thinking focused on deciding what can reasonably be believed and then usingthis information to make judgments.democracyA form of government in which the people govern, either directly or through electedrepresentatives.elitismThe notion that wealthy and well-connected individuals exercise power over certain areasof public policy.

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IM–1 |4© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.equalityThe notion that all individuals are equal in their moral worth and are thereby entitled toequal treatment under the law.free-market systemAn economic system based on the idea that government should interfere with economictransactions as little as possible. Free enterprise and self-reliance are the collective andindividual principles that underpin free markets.individualismThe idea that people should take the initiative, be self-sufficient, and accumulate thematerial advantages necessary for their well-being.legal actionThe use of courts of law as a means by which individuals protect their rights and settletheir conflicts.libertyThe principle that individuals should be free to act and think as they choose, providedthey do not infringe unreasonably on the rights and freedoms of others.majoritarianismThe idea that the majority prevails not only in elections but also in determining policy.party (partisan) polarizationThe condition in which opinions and actions in response to political issues and situationsdivide substantially along political party lines.pluralismA theory of American politics that holds that society’s interests are substantiallyrepresented through the activities of groups.political cultureThe characteristic and deep-seated beliefs of a particular people.political scienceThe systematic study of government and politics.politicsThe process through which a society settles its conflicts.powerThe ability of persons or institutions to control policy.

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IM–1 |5© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.public policiesDecisions by government to pursue particular courses of action.self-governmentThe principle that the people are the ultimate source and proper beneficiary of governingauthority; in practice, a government based on majority rule.Lecture OutlineThis lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outlineas a lecture aid.I.Learning to ThinkCritically•Criticalinvolves determining what can reasonably be believed and then using theinformation to reach a thoughtful conclusion.•Criticalthinking rests upon informed judgment, anditallows a citizen in a democracy toact responsibly.•Critical thinking does require effort on the part of a citizen, and not all are willing tomakethe effort.•Several major obstacles exist to critical thinking, and they have increased in recentdecades. Media systems have changed substantially and many present false informationas true and cannot be trusted.•The increase in heated, partisan political conflict has led more political leadersto usemisinformation to their advantage.•Confirmation bias is also a challenge to critical thinking, and it is one we commitwillingly by interpreting information in ways that confirm our preexisting beliefs.•Political science is a descriptive and analytical discipline that can enhancecriticalthinking and provide better explanations andanalyses of political phenomena.II.PoliticalCulture: Americans’ Enduring Beliefs•Everycountry has a political culture,the widely shared and deep-seated beliefs of itspeople about politics.•Nationalidentity in many countries is taken from the common ancestry and kinship theyshare; however,Americans are linked not by a shared ancestry but by the country’spolitical culture as the foundation of its national identity.

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IM–1 |6© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.•America’s core ideals are rooted in the European heritage of the first white settlers whoarrived at a time when people were awakening to the idea of individual choice.•The American Revolution was largely drivenby the desire to create a radically differentform of societyin which leaders would be required to govern within a set of rulesdesigned to protect people’s rights and interests.•Liberty, individualism, equality, and self-government are widely regarded as America’score political ideals.•America had no heredity nobility that owned virtually all the land. The New World’s vaststretches of open territory gave ordinary people the chance to own property.•America’s cultural beliefs are idealistic andhavenot alwaysbeenmet,as demonstratedby slavery, post-slavery legal segregation (Jim Crow), racial immigration restrictions, andgender inequality.•Americans’ determination to build a more equal society canbeseen in its publiceducation system. The United States pioneered the idea of free public education forchildren and has the world’smost elaborate system of higher education.•The United States government’s relatively low expenditure on social welfare programsreflects a strong cultural emphasis on individualism and self-reliance, ingrainedinAmerican consciousnesssincethe earliest colonial times.III.Politics and Power in America•Politics is the means by which society settles its conflicts and allocates the resultingbenefits and costs.•Those who prevail in political conflicts are said to have power—the ability of persons,groups, or institutions to influence political developments.•Authoritarian governments openly suppress political opposition through intimidation andrestrictions on freedom of expression. This suppression can also extend to imprisonmentand physical abuse.•The United States has “rules” designed to keep politics within peaceful bounds. Theserules—democracy, constitutionalism, and a free market—determine which side willprevail when conflict occurs, as well as what is off limits to the winning side.•The United States is a democracy, a form of government in which the people govern,either directly or through elected representatives. In practice, democracy has come tomean majority rule through the free and open election of representatives.

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IM–1 |7© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.•When American lawmakers respond to the wishes of the majority, the result ismajoritarianism—the situation in which the majority effectively determines whatgovernment does.•There are limits to majoritarianism, leading to other theories of how power is exercised inAmerica, including disproportionate influence byspecial interests.•Pluralists hold thatcompetition betweendiverse groups and interests createspolicy.Elitists suggest that a small number of influential groups or people control public policy.•Authority is the recognized right of officials to exercise power; popular election througha democracy increased the authority of government officials.•The Constitution of the United States was designed to protect against oppressivemajorities, andthisestablished constitutionalism—the idea that there are lawfulrestrictions on government’s power.•The Bill of Rights in combination with an independent judiciary and a firm attachment toprivate property have madelegalaction—the use of the courts as a means of assertingrights and interests—a channel through which ordinary citizens exercise power.•In contrast to socialism and communism, the United States operates under a free-marketsystem—a system that operatesmainly on private transactions.•American politics and public policy are influenced by a high degree of corporate power.•A defining characteristic of American politics is the widespread sharing of power.IV.The Text’s Organization•Subsequent chapters will discuss the constitutionalism of the U.S., the political role ofcitizens and how they interact with government, the functioning of government officials,and elective institutions and their appointive bodies.•Throughout the book, but particularly in the concluding chapters, attention is given topublic policies, which are the decisions of government to pursue particular courses ofaction.•Underlying the book’s discussion is the recognition of how difficult it is to governeffectively and how important it is to try.

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IM–1 |8© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.Complementary Lecture TopicsBelow are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general,these topics assume that students have read the chapter beforehand.•To what extent have natural factors allowed the core ideals of individualism, equality,and others to develop and flourish? If the United States had been located on the Europeancontinent, or lackedvast natural resources, would thishave affected the development ofAmerican ideals? With the advent of global trading networks and communicationsystems, and growing economic problems, can we expect a significant change intraditional American ideals in the future?•As more and more Americans seek out their news through cable television or Internetresources, how willcriticalthinking in America continue to be transformed? Will the rateof faulty perceptions among the citizenry continue to rise? Outside the study of politicalscience in the academic sphere, are there ways to reverse this trend?•Politics is the process through which a society settles its conflicts. Those who do prevailare said to have power. Are those with power restricted by political ideals, or does powerendow them with unfettered authority to pursue private ends? Are there historicalexamples that support one view or the other?Class Discussion Topics1.Take a poll of students to find out how often they seek out news items and which formsof media they choose for their news. Discuss the results, including what reasons thestudents give for picking these particular sources, whether or not their consumptionpatterns have changed over time, and which specific news items they seek out (opinionpages, blogs, direct news reporting, etc.).Discuss whether or not they believe theirpatterns of news consumption contribute tocriticalthinkingthat is fact-based and moreinsightful.2.Choose a range of different policy issues, some of which currently inspire wide publicdebate, and some of which draw the consistent interest of only those parties that aredirectly affected (the text uses agriculturalsubsidiesas an example). Use these differentissues to discuss the degree to which majoritarianism or pluralism determine what thegovernment does. How have each of these issues responded to the popular election ofrepresentatives, if at all? To what degree do candidates for office make positions on eachissue a central aspect of their campaigns?3.Someof your studentsmayhave lived abroad, either as visitors or as citizens of othercountries. Ask them to share their experiencesand perceptionsof important aspects ofwhere they have lived, including political culture,levels of political knowledge,theeconomic system, and thetype of government.

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IM–2|1© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.Chapter 2Constitutional Democracy: Promoting Liberty and Self-GovernmentLearning ObjectivesHaving read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following:•Recall key events that led to the U.S. Constitution.•Explain how the Constitution was negotiated and ratified.•Identify the Constitution and its basic components.Chapter OutlineI.Before the Constitution: The Colonial and Revolutionary ExperiencesA.The Declaration of IndependenceB.The Articles of ConfederationC.A Nation DissolvingII.Negotiating Toward a ConstitutionA.The Great Compromise: A Two-Chamber CongressB.The Three-Fifths Compromise: Issues of Slavery and TradeC.A Strategy for RatificationD.The Ratification DebateE.The Framers’ GoalsIII.Protecting Liberty: Limited GovernmentA.Grants and Denials of PowerB.Using Power to Offset PowerC.Separated Institutions Sharing Power: Checks and Balances1.Shared Legislative Powers2.Shared Executive Powers3.Shared Judicial PowersD.The Bill of RightsE.Judicial ReviewIV.Providing forRepresentative GovernmentA.Democracy versus RepublicB.Limited Popular RuleC.Altering the Constitution: More Power to the People1.Jeffersonian Democracy: A Revolution of the Spirit2.Jacksonian Democracy: Linking the People and the Presidency3.The Progressives: Senate and Primary ElectionsV.Constitutional Democracy TodayVI.Summary

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IM–2|2© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.Focus and Main PointsThis chapter describes how the principles ofrepresentativegovernment and limited governmentare embodied in the Constitution anditexplains the tension between them. Italso indicates howthese principles have been modified in practice in the course of American history. Themain pointspresentedin this chapterare:•America during the colonial period developed traditions of limited government andrepresentativegovernment. These traditions were rooted in governing practices, politicaltheory, and cultural values.•The Constitution provides for limited government mainly by defining lawful powers andby dividing those powers among competing institutions. The Constitution, with its Bill ofRights, also prohibits government from infringing on individual rights. Judicial review isan additional safeguard.•The Constitution in its original form provided forrepresentativegovernment mainlythrough indirectmethodsofelectingrepresentatives. The framers’ theory ofrepresentativegovernment was based on the notion that political power must be separatedfrom immediate popular influences if sound policies are to result.•The idea of popular government—in which the majority’s desires have a more direct andimmediate impact on governing officials—has gained strength since the nation’sbeginning.Originally, the House of Representatives was the only institution subject todirect vote of the people. This mechanism has been extended to other institutions and,through primary elections, even to the nomination of candidates for public office.Chapter SummaryThe Constitution of the United States is a reflection of the colonial and revolutionary experiencesof the early Americans. Freedom from abusive government was a reason for the colonies’ revoltagainst British rule, but the English tradition also provided ideas about government, power, andfreedom that were expressed in the Constitution and, earlier, in the Declaration of Independence.The Constitution was designed in part to provide for a limited government in which politicalpower would be confined to proper uses. The framers wanted to ensure that the government theywere creating would not itself be a threat to freedom. To this end, they confined the nationalgovernment to expressly granted powers and also denied it certain specific powers. Otherprohibitions on government were later added to the Constitution in the form of stated guaranteesof individual liberties in the Bill of Rights. The most significant constitutional provision forlimited government, however, was a separation of powers among the three branches. The powersgiven to each branch enable it to act as a check on the exercise of power by the other two, anarrangement that during the nation’s history has in fact served as a barrier to abuses of power.

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IM–2|3© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.The Constitution, however, made no mention of how the powers and limits of government wereto be judged in practice. In its historic ruling inMarbury v. Madison, the Supreme Courtassumed the authority to review the constitutionality of legislative and executive actions and todeclare them unconstitutional and thus invalid.The framers of the Constitution, respecting the idea of self-government but distrusting popularmajorities, devised a system of government that they felt would temper popular opinion and slowits momentum so that the public’s “true interest” (which includes a regard for the rights andinterests of the minority) would guide public policy. Different methods were advanced forselecting the president, the members of the House and the Senate, and federal judges as a meansof insulating political power against momentary majorities.Since the adoption of the Constitution, the public gradually has assumed more direct control ofits representatives, particularly through measures that affect the way officeholders are chosen.Presidential popular voting (linked to the Electoral College), direct election of senators, andprimary elections are among the devices aimed at strengthening the majority’s influence. Thesedevelopments are rooted in the idea, deeply held by ordinary Americans, that the people musthave substantial direct influence over their representatives if government is to serve theirinterests.Major ConceptsAnti-FederalistsA term used to describe opponents of the Constitution during the debate over ratification.Bill of RightsThe first 10 amendments to the Constitution. They include rights such as freedom of speechand religion and due process protections (for example, the right to a jury trial) for personsaccused of crimes.checks and balancesThe elaborate system of divided spheres of authority provided by the U.S. Constitution as ameans of controlling the power of government. The separation of powers among the branchesof the national government, federalism, and the different methods of selecting nationalofficers are all part of this system.constitutionThe fundamental law that defines how a government will legitimately operate.constitutional democratic republicA government that is constitutional in its provisions for minority rights and rule by law;democratic in its provisions for majority influence through elections; and a republic in its mixof deliberative institutions, which check and balance each other.

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IM–2|4© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.democracy (according to the framers)A form of government in which the people govern, either directly or through electedrepresentatives.denials of powerA constitutional means of limiting governmental action by listing those powers thatgovernment is expressly prohibited from using.Electoral CollegeAn unofficial term that refers to the electors who cast the states’ electoral votes.electoral votesThe method of voting used to choose the U.S. president. Each state has the same number ofelectoral votes as it has members in Congress (House and Senate combined). By tradition,electoral voting is tied to a state’s popular voting. The candidate with the most popular votesin a state (or, in a few states, the most votes in a congressional district) receives its electoralvotes.FederalistsA term used to describe supporters of the Constitution during the debate over ratification.grants of powerThe method of limiting the U.S. government by confining its scope of authority to thosepowers expressly granted in the Constitution.Great CompromiseThe agreement of the constitutional convention to create a two-chamber Congress with theHouse apportioned by population and the Senate apportioned equally by state.inalienable (natural) rightsThose rights that persons theoretically possessed in the state of nature, prior to the formationof governments. These rights, including those of life, liberty, and property, are consideredinherent and as such are inalienable. Since government is established by people, governmenthas the responsibility to preserve these rights.judicial reviewThe power of courts to decide whether a governmental institution has acted within itsconstitutional powers and, if not, to declare its action null and void.libertyThe principle that individuals should be free to act and think as they choose, provided theydo not infringe unreasonably on the rights and freedoms of others.

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IM–2|5© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.limited governmentA government that is subject to strict limits on its lawful uses of power and, hence, on itsability to deprive people of their liberty.New Jersey (small-state) PlanA constitutional proposal for a strengthened Congress but one in which each state wouldhave a single vote, thus granting a small state the same legislative power as a larger state.primaryelection (direct primary)A form of election in which voters choose a party’s nominees for public office. In moststates, eligibility to vote in a primary election is limited to voters who designated themselvesas party members when they registered to vote.representative governmentA government in which the people govern through the selection of their representatives.republicA form of government in which the people’s representatives decide policy throughinstitutions structured in ways that foster deliberation, slow the progress of decision making,and operate within restraints that protect individual liberty. To the framers, the Constitution’sseparation of powers and other limits on power were defining features of a republican formof government, as opposed to a democratic form, which places no limits on the majority.separated institutions sharing powerThe principle that, as a way to limit government, its powers should be divided amongseparate branches, each of which also shares in the power of the others as a means ofchecking and balancing them. The result is that no one branch can exercise power decisivelywithout the support or acquiescence of the others.separation of powersThe division of the powers of government among separate institutions or branches.social contractA voluntary agreement by individuals to form a government that is then obligated to workwithin the confines of that agreement.Three-Fifths CompromiseA compromise worked out at the 1787 convention between northern states and southernstates. Each slave was to be counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of federaltaxation and congressional apportionment (number of seats in the House of Representative).tyranny of the majorityThe potential of a majority to monopolize power for its own gain and to the detriment ofminority rights and interests.

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IM–2|6© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.Virginia (large-state) PlanA constitutional proposal for a strong Congress with two chambers, both of which would bebased on numerical representation, thus granting more power to the larger states.Lecture OutlineThis lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outlineas a lecture aid.The author focuses on the foundations of limited government in the United States. In thebeginning of the chapter, a review of the origins of the restriction of governmental authority isprovided, followed by a discussion of constitutional restraints on power and the related issue ofjudicial review. The continuing debate over representation and degree of self-rule is alsohighlighted, tracing its development from the ratification of the Constitution in 1789 through theProgressive Era reforms in the modern era. The chapter concludes with an examination ofcontemporary American constitutional democracy.I.Before the Constitution: The Colonial and Revolutionary ExperiencesEarly Americans’ admiration for limited government was based on their British heritage andtheir colonial experience. ThisBritish heritage included the concept of a monarchy restrictedby Parliament.•Colonial charters had provisions for limited government,such as trial by jury, and forelected assemblies.•The British failed to uphold the colonists’established traditions, andtheyimposed taxes,which led to the cry of “no taxation without representation.”•The First Continental Congress defined the colonists’ demands,and violence ensuedwhen the king refused their demands.John Locke’s writings introduced the concepts of the social contract and inalienable naturalrights such as life, liberty, and property. Locke’s ideas enjoyed great popularity in thecolonies, where people enjoyed a degree of freedom unthinkable in Europe. ThomasJefferson paraphrasedLocke’sideas in the Declaration of Independence during theRevolutionary War.•A constitution is the fundamental law that defines how government operates: how leadersare chosen; the institutions and procedures of government; and lawful power and limitson that power. It is the supreme law of the land.

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IM–2|7© 2019by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution inanymanner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.•The first government of the United States was, instead, based on the Articles ofConfederation, whichsubordinated national authority to that of the states, creating a weakand ineffectual national government.•The national government lacked the power to tax and was dependent on voluntarycontributions from the states. It was thus unable to finance an adequate army and navy.•Congress could not shape a national economy, as it could not interfere with thecommerce of the states.•The Articles demonstrated the consequences of an overly weak national authority. Thisresulted in public disorder, economic chaos, and inadequate defense.•Shays’ Rebellion underscored these problems and provided the impetus for aconstitutional convention.II.Negotiating Toward a ConstitutionFormulating and agreeing upon a stronger national government required a variety ofcompromises:•An effective national government required a union of people, not just states.•The Great Compromise was struck between the large-state and small-state factions,resulting in the creation of a bicameral Congress with a state-based Senate and apopulation-based House.•The Three-Fifths Compromise between the commercial, non-slave North and theagricultural, slave South allowedslaves to count for part of the population in the Southfor congressional representation purposes.A separate compromise between the tworegionsprohibited a taxon exports (but not imports) and prohibited the end of the slavetrade before 1808.•The strategy for ratification of the Constitution was to have independently electedratifying conventions in each state approvethe document,with nine states required forapproval.•Madison, Hamilton, and Jay wroteThe Federalist Papersin support of the newconstitution. In1788, ratification by the ninth state occurred.•The framers’ goals of creating a strong national government while preserving the stateswere attained by adoptinga federal system,with sovereignty divided between thenational and state governments.

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