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Class Notes For We The People, 13th Edition

Class Notes For We The People, 13th Edition provides well-organized, detailed notes to help you grasp key concepts quickly and improve your understanding.

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    IM – 1 | 1 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. Chapter 1 Critical Thinking and Political Culture : Becoming a Responsible Citizen Learning Objectives Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following: • Understand critical thinking, and what political science can contribute to it. • Identify the core values underlying American political culture. • Discuss the U.S. immigration policy. • Define government and politics. • Compare and contrast the various types of government. • Demonstrate knowledge of the origins of American democracy. • Describe key ideologies in American politics. Chapter Outline I. Learning to Think Critically A. Obstacles to Critical Thinking B. What Political Science Can Contribute to Critical Thinking II. Political Culture: Americans’ Enduring Beliefs A. Core Values: Liberty, Individualism, Equality, and Self - Government B. T he Limits and Power of Americans’ Ideals III. Politics and Power in America A. A Democratic System B. A Constitutional System C. A Free - Market System D. Who Govern s ? IV. The Text’s Organization V. Summary Focus and Main Points Contemporary American government is placed in historical perspective in this chapter. The value of political science in examining the development of American politics since the country’s earliest years is examined briefly, and concepts such as power, pluralism, and constitutionalism that are central to the study of government and politics are also defined and discussed . American values like individualism, equality, and liberty are also discussed, as well as the ways those ideals have often failed in practi ce. In addition, the value of critical thinking and the ability of

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    IM – 1 | 2 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. political science to help develop critical thinking are examined . Constitional government and the free - market system are examined as organizing principles for the development of the U.S. political system . The main points of this chapter are as follows: • The development of critical thinking is important for functioning democracies, which rely on the informed choices of citizens for the formation of government. There are powerful obstacles to critical thinking, such as individual unwillingness to develop it, changing patterns of media consumption, and “spin” by political leaders. Political science is a discipline that can help develop critical thinking among students and also lead to a fuller understanding of political phenomena. • Every country has its distinctive political culture, a widely shared and deep - seated belief system. National identity in many countries is taken from the common ancestry and kinship they share. Americans are linked not by a shared ancestry but by the country’s political culture as the foundation of its national identity. Liberty, individualism, equality, and self - government are America’s core political ideals, though they have been uneven in practice. • Politics is the process through which a society settles its conflicts . Those who win in political conflict are said to have power, and those leaders that have gained the legitimacy to use that power have authority. The play of politics in the United States takes place in the context of democratic procedures, constitutionalism, and the free - market system. Theorists differ in explaining how power is wielded, using elements of majoritarianism, pluralism, corporate power, and elite rule as explanatory models. • Politics in the United States is characterized by a widespread sharing of power through a highly fragmented governing system with extensive checks and balances, a high degree of pluralism, and an extraordinary emphasis on individual rights. The free - market system is also a powerful organizing factor in American political culture and development. Chapter Summary Critical thinking is the process through which conclusions are reached; it involves determining what can reasonably be believed and then using the information to reach a thoughtful conclusion. Critical thinking is a key to responsible citizenship, but many citizens avoid it by virtue of paying scant attention to politics. The tools of political science can contribute to effective critical thinking , though many obstacles to critical thinking exist, including a recent rise in the level of misinformation. The United States is a nation that was formed on a set of ideals. Liberty, individualism, equality, and self - government are foremost among these ideals. These ideals became Americans’ common bond and today are the basis of their political culture. Although imperfect in practice, these ideals have guided what generations of Americans have tried to achieve politically.

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    IM – 1 | 3 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. Politics is the means by which society settles its conflicts and allocates the resulting benefits and costs. The basis of politics is conflict over scarce resources and competing values. Those who have power win out in this conflict and are able to control governing authority and policy choices. Unlike authoritarian regimes, the United States is a democracy with strong rules that manage the competition over power and policy and keep government power in check. Politics in the United States plays out through rules of the game that include democracy, constitutionalism, and free markets. Democracy is rule by the people, which in practice refers to a representative system of government in which the people rule through their elected officials. Constitutionalism refers to rules that limit the rightful power of government over citizens. A free - market system assigns private parties the dominant role in determining how economic costs and benefits are allocated. Major Concepts authoritarian government A form of government in which those in power openly repress their opponents in order to stay in power. authority The recognized right of officials to exercise power as a result of the positions they hold. confirmation bias The tendency of individuals to interpret information in ways that confirm what they already believe. constitutionalism The idea that there are lawful limits on the power of government. corporate power The power that corporations exercise in their effort to influence government and maintain control of the workplace. critical thinking Reflective thinking focused on deciding what can reasonably be believed and then using this information to make judgments. democracy A form of government in which the people govern, either directly or through elected representatives. elitism The notion that wealthy and well - connected individuals exercise power over certain areas of public policy.

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    IM – 1 | 4 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. equality The notion that all individuals are equal in their moral worth and are thereby entitled to equal treatment under the law. free - market system An economic system based on the idea that government should interfere with economic transactions as little as possible. Free enterprise and self - reliance are the collective and individual principles that underpin free markets. individualism The idea that people should take the initiative, be self - sufficient, and accumulate the material advantages necessary for their well - being. legal action The use of courts of law as a means by which individuals protect their rights and settle their conflicts. liberty The principle that individuals should be free to act and think as they choose, provided they do not infringe unreasonably on the rights and freedoms of others. majoritarianism The idea that the majority prevails not only in elections but also in determining policy. party (partisan) polarization The condition in which opinions and actions in response to political issues and situations divide substantially along political party lines. pluralism A theory of American politics that holds that society’s interests are substantially represented through the activities of groups. political culture The characteristic and deep - seated beliefs of a particular people. political science The systematic study of government and politics. politics The process through which a society settles its conflicts. power The ability of persons or institutions to control policy.

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    IM – 1 | 5 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. public policies Decisions by government to pursue particular courses of action. self - government The principle that the people are the ultimate source and proper beneficiary of governing authority; in practice, a government based on majority rule. Lecture Outline This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid. I. Learning to Think Critically • Critical involves determining what can reasonably be believed and then using the information to reach a thoughtful conclusion. • Critical thinking rests upon informed judgment, and it allows a citizen in a democracy to act responsibly. • Critical thinking does require effort on the part of a citizen, and not all are willing to make the effort. • Several major obstacles exist to critical thinking, and they have increased in recent decades. Media systems have changed substantially and many present false information as true and cannot be trusted. • The increase in heated, partisan political conflict has led more p olitical leaders to use misinformation to their advantage. • Confirmation bias is also a challenge to critical thinking, and it is one we commit willingly by interpreting information in ways that confirm our preexisting beliefs. • Political science is a descriptive and analytical discipline that can enhance critical thinking and provide better explanations and analyse s of political phenomena. II. Political Culture: Americans’ Enduring Beliefs • Every country has a political culture, the widely shared and deep - seated beliefs of its people about politics. • National identity in many countries is taken from the common ancestry and kinship they share ; however, Americans are linked not by a shared ancestry but by the country’s political culture as the foundation of its national identity.

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    IM – 1 | 6 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. • America’s core ideals are rooted in the European heritage of the first white settlers who arrived at a time when people were awakening to the idea of individual choice. • The America n Revolution was largely driven by the desire to create a radically different form of society in which l eaders would be required to govern within a set of rules designed to protect people’s rights and interests. • Liberty, individualism, equality, and self - government are widely regarded as America’s core political ideals. • America had no heredity nobility that owned virtua lly all the land. The New World’ s vast stretches of open territory gave ordinary people the chance to own property. • America’s cultural beliefs are idealistic and have not always been met , a s demonstrated by slavery, post - slavery legal segregation (Jim Crow), racial immigration restrictions, and gender inequality. • Americans’ determination to build a more equal society can be seen in its public education system. The United States pioneered the idea of free public education for children and has the world’s most elaborate system of higher education. • The United States government’s relatively low expenditure on social welfare programs reflects a strong cultural emphasis on individualism and self - reliance, ingrained in American consciousness since the earliest colonial times. I I I. Politics and Power in America • Politics is the means by which society settles its conflicts and allocates the resulting benefits and costs. • Those who prevail in political conflicts are said to have power — the ability of persons, groups, or institutions to influence political developments. • Authoritarian governments openly suppress political opposition through intimidation and restrictions on freedom of expression. This suppression can also extend to i mprisonment and physical abuse. • The United States has “rules” designed to keep politics within peaceful bounds. These rules — democracy, constitutionalism, and a free market — determine which side will prevail when conflict occurs, as well as what is off limits to the winning side. • The United States is a democracy, a form of government in which the people govern, either directly or through elected representatives. In practice, democracy has come to mean majority rule through the free and open election of representatives.

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    IM – 1 | 7 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. • When American lawmakers respond to the wishes of the majority, the result is majoritarianism — the situation in which the majority effectively determines what government does. • There are limits to majoritarianism, leading to other theories of how power is exercised in America , including disproportionate influence by special interests. • Pluralists hold that competition between diverse groups and interests create s policy. Elitists suggest that a small number of influential groups or people control public policy. • Authority is the recognized right of officials to exercise power; popular election through a democracy increased the authority of government officials. • The Constitution of the United States was designed to protect against oppressive majorities, and this established constitutionalism — the idea that there are lawful restrictions on government’s power. • The Bill of Rights in combination with an independent judiciary and a firm attachment to private property have made legal action — the use of the courts as a means of asserting rights and interests — a channel through which ordinary citizens exercise power. • In contrast to socialism and communism, the United States operates under a free - market system — a system that operates mainly on private transactions. • American politics and public policy are influenced by a high degree of corporate power . • A defining characteristic of American politics is the widespread sharing of power. I V . The Text’s Organization • Subsequent chapters will discuss the constitutionalism of the U.S., the political role of citizens and how they interact with government, the functioning of government officials, and elective institutions and their appointive bodies. • Throughout the book, but particularly in the concluding chapters, attention is given to public policies, which are the decisions of government to pursue particular courses of action. • Underlying the book’s discussion is the recognition of how difficult it is to govern effectively and how important it is to try.

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    IM – 1 | 8 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. Complementary Lecture Topics Below are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general, these topics assume that students have read the chapter beforehand. • To what extent have natural factors allowed the core ideals of individualism, equality, and others to develop and flourish? If the United States had been located on the European continent, or lacked vast natural resources, would this have affected the development of American ideals? With the advent of global trading networks and communication systems, and growing economic problems, can we expect a significant change in traditional American ideals in the future? • As more and more Americans seek out their news through cable television or Internet resources, how will critical thinking in America continue to be transformed? Will the rate of faulty perceptions among the citizenry continue to rise? Outside the study of political science in the academic sphere, are there ways to reverse this trend? • Politics is the process through which a society settles its conflicts. Those who do prevail are said to have power. Are those with power restricted by political ideals, or does power endow them with unfettered authority to pursue private ends? Are there historical examples that support one view or the other? Class Discussion Topics 1. Take a poll of students to find out how often they seek out news items and which forms of media they choose for their news. Discuss the results, including what reasons the students give for picking these particular sources, whether or not their consumption patterns have changed over time, and which specific news items they seek out (opinion pages, blogs, direct news reporting, etc.) . Discuss whether or not they believe their patterns of news consumption contribute to critical thinking that is fact - based and more insightful . 2. Choose a range of different policy issues, some of which currently inspire wide public debate, and some of which draw the consistent interest of only those parties that are directly affected (the text uses agricultural subsidies as an example). Use these different issues to discuss the degree to which majoritarianism or pluralism determine what the government does. How have each of these issues responded to the popular election of representatives, if at all? To what degree do candidates for office make positions on each issue a central aspect of their campaigns? 3. Some of your students may have lived abroad, either as visitors or as citizens of other countries. Ask them to share their experiences and perceptions of important aspects of where they have lived, including political culture, levels of political knowledge, the economic system, and the type of government.

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    IM – 2 | 1 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. Chapter 2 Constitutional Democracy: Promoting Liberty and Self - Government Learning Objectives Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following: • Recall key events that led to the U.S. Constitution. • Explain how the Constitution was negotiated and ratified. • Identify the Constitution and its basic components. Chapter Outline I. Before the Constitution: The Colonial and Revolutionary Experiences A . The Declaration of Independence B . The Articles of Confederation C. A Nation Dissolving II. Negotiating Toward a Constitution A. The Great Compromise: A Two - Chamber Congress B. The Three - Fifths Compromise: Issues of Slavery and Trade C. A Strategy for Ratification D. The Ratification Debate E. The Framers’ Goals III. Protecting Liberty: Limited Government A. Grants and Denials of Power B. Using Power to Offset Power C. Separated Institutions Sharing Power: Checks and Balances 1. Shared Legislative Powers 2. Shared Executive Powers 3. Shared Judicial Powers D. The Bill of Rights E. Judicial Review IV. Providing for Representative Government A. Democracy v ersus Republic B. Limited Popular Rule C. Altering the Constitution: More Power to the People 1. Jeffersonian Democracy: A Revolution of the Spirit 2. Jacksonian Democracy: Linking the People and the Presidency 3. The Progressives: Senate and Primary Elections V. Constitutional Democracy Today VI. Summary

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    IM – 2 | 2 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. Focus and Main Points This chapter describes how the principles of representative government and limited government are e m bodied in the Constitution and it explain s the tension between them. It also indicates how these principles have been modified in practice in the course of American hi s tory. The main points presented in this chapter are : • America during the colonial period developed traditions of limited government and representative government . These traditions were rooted in governing practices, political theory, and cultural values. • The Constitution provides for limited government mainly by defining lawful powers and by dividing those powers among competing institutions . The Constitution, with its Bill of Rights, also prohibits government from infringing on individual rights. Judicial review is an additional safeguard. • The Constitution in its original form provided for representative government mainly through indirect methods of electing representatives . The f ramers’ theory of representative government was based on the notion that political power must be separated from immediate popular influences if sound policies are to result. • The idea of popular government — in which the majority’s desires have a more direct and immediate impact on governing officials — has gained strength since the nation’s beginning. Originally, the House of Representatives was the only institution subject to direct vote of the people. This mechanism has been extended to other institutions and, through primary elections, even to the nomination of candidates for public office. Chapter Summary The Constitution of the United States is a reflection of the colonial and revolutionary experiences of the early Americans. Freedom from abusive government was a reason for the colonies’ revolt against British rule, but the English tradition also provided ideas about government, power, and freedom that were expressed in the Constitution and, earlier, in the Declaration of Independence. The Constitution was designed in part to provide for a limited government in which political power would be confined to proper uses. The framers wanted to ensure that the government they were creating would not itself be a threat to freedom. To this end, they confined the national government to expressly granted powers and also denied it certain specific powers. Other prohibitions on government were later added to the Constitution in the form of stated guarantees of individual liberties in the Bill of Rights. The most significant constitutional provision for limited government, however, was a separation of powers among the three branches. The powers given to each branch enable it to act as a check on the exercise of power by the other two, an arrangement that during the nation’s history has in fact served as a barrier to abuses of power.

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    IM – 2 | 3 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. The Constitution, however, made no mention of how the powers and limits of government were to be judged in practice. In its historic ruling in Marbury v. Madison , the Supreme Court assumed the authority to review the constitutionality of legislative and executive actions and to declare them unconstitutional and thus invalid. The framers of the Constitution, respecting the idea of self - government but distrusting popular majorities, devised a system of government that they felt would temper popular opinion and slow its momentum so that the public’s “true interest” (which includes a regard for the rights and interests of the minority) would guide public policy. Different methods were advanced for selecting the president, the members of the House and the Senate, and federal judges as a means of insulating political power against momentary majorities. Since the adoption of the Constitution, the public gradually has assumed more direct control of its representatives, particularly through measures that affect the way officeholders are chosen. Presidential popular voting (linked to the Electoral College), direct election of senators, and primary elections are among the devices aimed at strengthening the majority’s influence. These developments are rooted in the idea, deeply held by ordinary Americans, that the people must have substantial direct influence over their representatives if government is to serve their interests. Major Concepts Anti - Federalists A term used to describe opponents of the Constitution during the debate over ratification. Bill of Rights The first 10 amendments to the Constitution. They include rights such as freedom of speech and religion and due process protections (for example, the right to a jury trial) for persons accused of crimes. checks and balances The elaborate system of divided spheres of authority provided by the U.S. Constitution as a means of controlling the power of government. The separation of powers among the branches of the national government, federalism, and the different methods of selecting national officers are all part of this system. constitution The fundamental law that defines how a government will legitimately operate. constitutional democratic republic A government that is constitutional in its provisions for minority rights and rule by law; democratic in its provisions for majority influence through elections; and a republic in its mix of deliberative institutions, which check and balance each other.

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    IM – 2 | 4 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. democracy (according to the framers) A form of government in which the people govern, either directly or through elected representatives. denials of power A constitutional means of limiting governmental action by listing those powers that government is expressly prohibited from using. Electoral College An unofficial term that refers to the electors who cast the states’ electoral votes. electoral votes The method of voting used to choose the U.S. president. Each state has the same number of electoral votes as it has members in Congress (House and Senate combined). By tradition, electoral voting is tied to a state’s popular voting. The candidate with the most popular votes in a state (or, in a few states, the most votes in a congressional district) receives its electoral votes. Federalists A term used to describe supporters of the Constitution during the debate over ratification. grants of power The method of limiting the U.S. government by confining its scope of authority to those powers expressly granted in the Constitution. Great Compromise The agreement of the constitutional convention to create a two - chamber Congress with the House apportioned by population and the Senate apportioned equally by state. inalienable (natural) rights Those rights that persons theoretically possessed in the state of nature, prior to the formation of governments. These rights, including those of life, liberty, and property, are considered inherent and as such are inalienable. Since government is established by people, government has the responsibility to preserve these rights. judicial review The power of courts to decide whether a governmental institution has acted within its constitutional powers and, if not, to declare its action null and void. liberty The principle that individuals should be free to act and think as they choose, provided they do not infringe unreasonably on the rights and freedoms of others.

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    IM – 2 | 5 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. limited government A government that is subject to strict limits on its lawful uses of power and, hence, on its ability to deprive people of their liberty. New Jersey (small - state) Plan A constitutional proposal for a strengthened Congress but one in which each state would have a single vote, thus granting a small state the same legislative power as a larger state. primary election (direct primary) A form of election in which voters choose a party’s nominees for public office. In most states, eligibility to vote in a primary election is limited to voters who designated themselves as party members when they registered to vote. representative government A government in which the people govern through the selection of their representatives. republic A form of government in which the people’s representatives decide policy through institutions structured in ways that foster deliberation, slow the progress of decision making, and operate within restraints that protect individual liberty. To the framers, the Constitution’s separation of powers and other limits on power were defining features of a republican form of government, as opposed to a democratic form, which places no limits on the majority. separated institutions sharing power The principle that, as a way to limit government, its powers should be divided among separate branches, each of which also shares in the power of the others as a means of checking and balancing them. The result is that no one branch can exercise power decisively without the support or acquiescence of the others. separation of powers The division of the powers of government among separate institutions or branches . social contract A voluntary agreement by individuals to form a government that is then obligated to work within the confines of that agreement. Three - Fifths Compromise A compromise worked out at the 1787 convention between northern states and southern states. Each slave was to be counted as three - fifths of a person for purposes of federal taxation and congressional apportionment (number of seats in the House of Representative). tyranny of the majority The potential of a majority to monopolize power for its own gain and to the detriment of minority rights and interests.

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    IM – 2 | 6 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. Virginia (large - state) Plan A constitutional proposal for a strong Congress with two chambers, both of which would be based on numerical representation, thus granting more power to the larger states. Lecture Outline This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid. The author focuses on the foundations of limited government in the United States. In the beginning of the chapter, a review of the origins of the restriction of governmental authority is provided, followed by a discussion of constitutional restraints on power and the related issue of judicial review. The continuing debate over representation and degree of self - rule is also highlighted, tracing its development from the ratification of the Constitution in 1789 through the Progressive Era reforms in the modern era. The chapter concludes with an examination of contemporary American constitutional democracy. I. Before the Constitution: The Colonial and Revolutionary Experiences Early Americans’ admiration for limited government was based on their British heritage an d their colonial experience. This British heritage included the concept of a monarchy restricted by Parliament. • Colonial charters had provisions for limited government , such as trial by jury , and for elected assemblies . • The British failed to uphold the colonists ’ established traditions, and they imposed taxes , which led to the cry of “no taxation without representation.” • The First Continental Congress defined the colonists’ demands , and violence ensued when the king refused their demands. John Locke’s writings introduced the concepts of the social contract and inalienable natural rights such as life, liberty, and property. Locke’s ideas enjoyed great popularity in the colonies, where people enjoyed a degree of freedom unthinkable in Europe. Thomas Jefferson paraphrased Locke’s ideas in the Declaration of Independence during the Revolutionary War. • A constitution is the fundamental law that defines how government operates: how leaders are chosen; the institutions and procedures of government; and lawful power and limits on that power. It is the supreme law of the land.

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    IM – 2 | 7 © 201 9 by McGraw - Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or par t. • The first government of the United States was, instead, based on t he Articles of Confederation , which subordinated national authority to that of the states, creating a weak and ineffectual national government. • The national government lacked the power to tax and was dependent on voluntary contributions from the states. It was thus unable to finance an adequate army and navy. • Congress could not shape a national economy, as it could not interfere with the commerce of the states. • The Articles demonstrated the consequences of an ov erly weak national authority. This resulted in public disorder, economic chaos, and inadequate defense. • Shays’ Rebellion underscored these problems and provided the impetus for a constitutional convention. II. Negotiating Toward a Constitution Formulating and agreeing upon a stronger national government required a variety of compromises: • An effective national government required a union of people, not just states. • The Great Compromise was struck between the large - state and small - state factions, resulting in the creation of a bicameral Congress with a state - based Senate and a population - based House. • The Three - Fifths Compromise between the commercial, non - slave North and the agricultural, slave South allowed slaves to count for part of the population in the South for congressional representation purposes . A separate compromise between the two regions prohibited a tax on exports (but not imports) and prohibited the end of the slave trade before 1808. • The strategy for ratification of the Constitution was to have independently elected ratifying co nventions in each state approve the document , with nine states required for approval. • Madison, Hamilton, and Jay wrote The Federalist Papers in sup port of the new constitution. In 1788, ratification by the ninth state occurred. • The f ramers’ goals of creating a strong national government while preserving the states were attained by adopting a federal system , with sovereignty divided between the national and state governments.

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