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Test Bank for Understanding Public Policy, 15th Edition

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    1 CHAPTER 1 POLICY ANALYSIS: WHAT GOVERNMENTS DO, WHY THEY DO IT, AND WHAT DIFFERENCE IT MAKES CHAPTER OUTLINE AND SUMMARY I. What Is Public Policy? A. Public policy examines what governments do, why they do it, and what difference it makes. B. Definition of Policy Public policy is defined as what governments chose to do or chose not to do. C. Policy Expansion and Government Growth The size of government can be measured in relation to the size of the economy. As government has grown in the last century, the scope of public policy has also expanded. D. Scope of Public Policy The scope of public policy is reflected in government spending but also includes regulatory activities whose costs are not shown in government budgets. II. Why Study Public Policy? A. Political science goes beyond an understanding of governmental institutions and processes. It also includes public policy, which focuses on the causes and consequences of government actions. III. What Can Be Learned from Policy Analysis? Policy analysis is finding out what governments do, why they do it, and what difference, if any, it makes. A. Description The first step of policy analysis consists of careful description of current policy. B. Causes Having described the components of a given public policy, policy analysis then moves to those factors that impact public policy. C. Consequences Finally, policy analysis includes an examination of the effects of public policy. IV. Policy Analysis and Policy Advocacy A. Policy analysis is contrasted with policy advocacy: policy analysis seeks to explain, while policy advocacy prescribes actions. Policy analysis is a prerequisite to advocacy. V. Policy Analysis and the Quest for Solutions to America’s Problems

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    2 Policy analysis should not assume that all of America’s problems can be solved. There are many reasons for this: A. Limits on Government Power Governments are constrained by many social forces—family, class structure, religion, and so forth. Many of society’s problems are intractable. B. Disagreement over the Problem Where no consensus exists concerning a problem, the search for a public policy answer is greatly hampered. C. Subjectivity in Interpretation Values inevitably come into play in the interpretation of research. D. Limitations on Design of Human Research Research in the social sciences is fraught with limitations and difficulties, simply because human subjects are involved. E. Complexity of Human Behavior The behavior of groups and even individuals is so complex that social scientists are unable to make accurate predictions about the impact of proposed policies. VI. Policy Analysis as Art and Craft Policy analysis is both an art—requiring insight and creativity—and a craft— requiring knowledge of applied sciences. Aaron Wildavsky was firm in asserting that no one model can be used, and no model of choice will be presented in this text. TEACHING OBJECTIVES 1. Define public policy and its scope 2. Explain the need to study public policy 3. Classify three learning’s from policy analysis 4. Distinguish between policy analysis and policy advocacy 5. Evaluate policy analysis as a solution to America's problems 6. Explain why policy analysis is both an art and a craft DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Consider the use of government spending as a measure of what governments do and their priorities. What other measures might replace or complement this one? 2. Taking any governmental body, discuss what could be learned about it through policy analysis. 3. Compare the approaches of “traditional” and “behavioral” political science, using specific examples, such as education or transportation policy. 4. Apply the three-way relationship between public policy and its causes and outcomes pictured on page eight to a current public policy question. 5. How can policy analysts overcome some of the problems inherent in policy analysis?

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    3 LECTURE LAUNCHERS 1. Begin with the text’s question “Why study public policy?” and solicit student responses, leading into an examination of the possibilities and limitations of forming public policy. 2. Using a policy institute—for instance the Brookings Institution or the Heritage Foundation—use the institute to begin a lecture focusing on the functions of public policy analysis, policy formation, and policy advocacy. 3. Use an historical example—such as the Tea Act of 1773—that had egregious unintended consequences. Begin with an examination of the difficulties of public policy. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. According to the text, __________ is a common indicator of governmental functions and priorities. a. policy advocacy b. government spending c. regulatory activity d. policy analysis Correct Answer: b LO#/text: 1.1: Define public policy and its scope Topic/Concept: What Is Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand 2. Government’s responsibilities have generally a. grown in recent years. b. Constricted in recent years. c. stayed about the same in recent years. d. varied greatly in recent years. Correct Answer: a, LO#/text: 1.1: Define public policy and its scope Topic/Concept: What Is Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand 3. Governmental growth during the twentieth century may be attributed to all BUT WHICH of the following? a. World War I and World War II b. the Great Depression

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    4 c. massive immigration d. Great Society programs Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 1.1: Define public policy and its scope Topic/Concept: What Is Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand 4. Total government spending (state, local, and federal) currently accounts for about what percentage of the gross domestic product? a. 37 b. 25 c. 45 d. 15 Correct Answer: a LO#/text: 1.1: Define public policy and its scope Topic/Concept: What Is Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand 5. The most expensive undertaking of the federal government is a. education. b. national defense. c. Social Security and Medicare. d. interest on the national debt. Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 1.1: Define public policy and its scope Topic/Concept: What Is Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understand 6. The most expensive undertaking of state and local governments is a. highways. b. education. c. national defense. d. welfare. Correct Answer: b LO#/text: 1.1: Define public policy and its scope Topic/Concept: What Is Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Easy

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    5 Skill Level: Understand 7. The study of politics is the study of a. causes of government activity. b. who gets what, when, and how. c. the institutional structure of government. d. the consequences of societal policies. Correct Answer: b LO#/text: 1.2: Explain the need to study public policy Topic/Concept: Why Study Pubic Policy? Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Understanding 8. The study of public policy focuses on governmental a. structure. b. theory. c. activity. d. institutional history. Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 1.2: Explain the need to study public policy Topic/Concept: Why Study Pubic Policy? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 9. Studying what the Civil Rights Act of 1964 actually says about discrimination in employment is an example of policy a. description. b. advocacy. c. implementation. d. evaluation. Correct Answer: a LO#/text: 1.3: Classify three learnings from policy analysis Topic/Concept: What Can Be Learned from Policy Analysis? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 10. When we ask why public policy is what it is, we are looking at the a. effects. b. evaluations. c. causes. d. descriptions.

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    6 Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 1.3: Classify three learnings from policy analysis Topic/Concept: What Can Be Learned from Policy Analysis? Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Understand 11. Examining the consequences of public policy is often referred to as policy a. advocacy. b. evaluation. c. analysis. d. description. Correct Answer: b LO#/text: 1.3: Classify three learnings from policy analysis Topic/Concept: What Can Be Learned from Policy Analysis? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 12. When using test scores to measure the impact of education policy, we are taking part in a. policy analysis. b. policy evaluation. c. policy description. d. behavioral science. Correct Answer: b LO#/text: 1.3: Classify three learnings from policy analysis Topic/Concept: What Can Be Learned from Policy Analysis? Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply 13. Prescribing a direction in public policy is referred to as a. agenda setting. b. policy advocacy. c. policy evaluation. d. policy analysis. Correct Answer: b LO#/text: 1.4: Distinguish between policy analysis and policy advocacy Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis and Policy Advocacy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding

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    7 14. The work of a policy analyst includes all of the following except a. rigorous examination of the causes of public policy. b. systematic examination of the impact of public policy. c. prescribing policy preferences. d. scientifically studying public policy. Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 1.4: Distinguish between policy analysis and policy advocacy Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis and Policy Advocacy Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply 15. Which of these would typically be the work of a policy advocate, but not a policy analyst? a. explanation b. prescription c. research d. modeling Correct Answer: b LO#/text: 1.4: Distinguish between policy analysis and policy advocacy Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis and Policy Advocacy Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply 16. Policy _________ requires the skills of rhetoric, persuasion, organization, and activism. a. analysis b. evaluation c. advocacy d. expansion Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 1.4: Distinguish between policy analysis and policy advocacy Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis and Policy Advocacy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 17. One problem that researchers have in their attempt to find solutions for public problems is a(n) a. inability to quantify data. b. lack of understanding of the scientific method. c. disagreement about what the problems are. d. lack of understanding of the social and economic environment.

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    8 Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 1.5: Evaluate policy analysis as a solution to America's problems Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis and the Quest for Solutions to America’s Problems Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 18. In scientific terms, when we study the causes of public policy, policies become the ________variables and their determinants become the _________ variables a. evaluation; recommendation b. independent; dependent c. cause; consequences d. dependent; independent Correct Answer: d LO#/text: 1.5: Evaluate policy analysis as a solution to America's problems Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis and the Quest for Solutions to America’s Problems Difficulty Level: Medium Skill Level: Apply 19. The most serious reservation about policy analysis is the inability to make accurate predictions because of a. lack of accurate data. b. The complexity of human behavior. c. value conflicts among researchers. d. the Hawthorne effect. Correct Answer: b LO#/text: 1.5: Evaluate policy analysis as a solution to America's problems Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis and the Quest for Solutions to America’s Problems Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 20. Policy analysis is an art and a craft. It is an art because of the need for a. specialist knowledge of economics. b. knowledge of public administration. c. creativity in dealing with public issues. d. statistical expertise. Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 1.6: Explain why policy analysis is both an art and a craft Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis as Art and Craft Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding

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    9 TRUE/FALSE QUESTIONS 1. Public policy focuses on support for legislation and other government actions. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 1.1: Define public policy and its scope Topic/Concept: What Is Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 2. The Great Society resulted in a dramatic shrinking in the size of the U.S. government. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 1.1: Define public policy and its scope Topic/Concept: What Is Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 3. Gross domestic product is a common measure indicating a government’s size. Correct Answer: True LO#/text: 1.1: Define public policy and its scope Topic/Concept: What Is Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Medium Skill Level: Apply 4. “Traditional” political science centers on behaviors such as voting and lobbying. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 1.2: Explain the need to study public policy Topic/Concept: Why Study Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Medium Skill Level: Apply 5. The study of public policy is an aspect of political science. Correct Answer: True LO#/text: 1.2: Explain the need to study public policy Topic/Concept: Why Study Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Medium Skill Level: Apply 6. An examination of the impact of economic policies on the president’s popularity is an example of policy description.

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    10 Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 1.3: Classify three learning’s from policy analysis Topic/Concept: What Can Be Learned from Policy Analysis? Difficulty Level: Medium Skill Level: Apply 7. When we study the consequences of public policy, the impacts on society are the independent variables. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 1.3: Classify three learning’s from policy analysis Topic/Concept: What Can Be Learned from Policy Analysis? Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply 8. Policy advocacy is essentially persuasion in favor of a given public policy. Correct Answer: True LO#/text: 1.4: Distinguish between policy analysis and policy advocacy Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis and Policy Advocacy Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 9. Policy analysis can be used to put an end to differences in values. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 1.5: Evaluate policy analysis as a solution to America's problems Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis and the Quest for Solutions to America’s Problems Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply 10. Measurement of test results as a consequence of the No Child Left Behind Act is an example of the art of understanding the causes of public policy. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 1.6: Explain why policy analysis is both an art and a craft Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis as Art and Craft Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply

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    11 ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Understanding public policy is both an art and a craft. Provide a public policy scenario— actual or imagined—and illustrate how these two modes of thought might provide solutions. LO#/text: 1.6: Explain why policy analysis is both an art and a craft Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis as Art and Craft Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze 2. Policy analysis is finding out what governments do, why they do it, and what difference it makes. Choose a governmental entity—such as the Department of the Interior—and outline what you would hope to learn about it from policy analysis. LO#/text: 1.3: Classify three learnings from policy analysis Topic/Concept: What Can Be Learned from Policy Analysis? Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply 3. What overlap, if any, exists between the tasks of the policy analyst and the policy advocate? LO#/text: 1.4: Distinguish between policy analysis and policy advocacy Topic/Concept: Policy Analysis and Policy Advocacy Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply 4. Why study public policy? LO#/text: 1.2: Explain the need to study public policy Topic/Concept: Why Study Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply 5. Evaluate the use of government spending as an indicator of priorities. LO#/text: 1.1: Define public policy and its scope Topic/Concept: What Is Public Policy? Difficulty Level: Difficult Skill Level: Evaluate

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    12 WEBSITES Office of the President. White House home page, with president’s policy positions, speeches, press releases, etc. www.whitehouse.gov U.S. House of Representatives. Official House Website, with links to individual House members’ Websites. www.house.gov U.S. Senate. Official Senate Website, with links to individual senators’ Websites. www.senate.gov U.S. Congress on the Internet . Library of Congress Thomas search engine for finding bills and tracing their progress through Congress. http://thomas.loc.gov U.S. Census Bureau. The official site of the Census Bureau, with access to all current reports—population, income and poverty, government finances, etc. www.census.gov First Gov. U.S. government’s official portal to all independent agencies and government corporations. www.firstgov.gov Federal Judiciary. U.S. judiciary official site, with links to all federal courts. www.uscourts.gov Library of Congress. Compilation of the laws of the United States. http://thomas.loc.gov

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    13 CHAPTER 2 MODELS OF POLITICS: SOME HELP IN THINKING ABOUT PUBLIC POLICY CHAPTER OUTLINE AND SUMMARY I. Models for Policy Analysis Models represent simplified versions of reality, to aid comprehension. A. Uses of Models All of the models used in this text are conceptual models. B. Selected Policy Models No one model is superior to the others, each being useful in a variety of settings. II. Process: Policy as Political Activity The six-part policy process applies generally to all policymaking, beginning with problem identification and ending with policy evaluation. III. Institutionalism: Policy as Institutional Output Government institutions have long been a central focus of political science. Government institutions are important as they are the means by which solutions to policy issues become public policy. Though the Constitution provides the basic framework for government institutions, considerable change has occurred since its adoption. IV. Rationalism: Policy as Maximum Social Gain The idea of “maximum social gain” assumes that the costs of any policy will be less than the gains achieved and that the policy producing the greatest benefit should always be chosen. The rational policy approach also assumes that it is possible to identify what an entire society wants. The difficulties in this approach mean that it is rarely used. V. Incrementalism: Policy as Variations on the Past Posited as a response to the rational model of policymaking, incrementalism uses the status quo as a basis for modifications. This approach assumes that comprehensive change is not practical and that incremental change is more easily achieved. However, incrementalism is less viable in crisis situations. VI. Group Theory: Policy as Equilibrium in the Group Struggle Group theory assumes that the interests and actions of groups are central in politics, and it sees public policy as the equilibrium achieved by struggle among influential groups. The approach includes the notion that equilibrium is maintained by a latent group composed of most Americans, by overlapping group membership, and by checks and balances produced by competition among groups. VII. Elite Theory: Policy as Elite Preference The elite theory assumes that the masses are apathetic and that public policy reflects the wants and beliefs of the elite.

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    14 VIII. Public Choice Theory: Policy as Collective Decision Making by Self-Interested Individuals Public choice theory looks at policymaking from an economic point of view, with the idea of the social contract as one of its key tenets. It assumes that government must provide public goods and address the issue of externalities when the activities of one actor imposes costs on another. IX. Game Theory: Policy as Rational Choice in Competitive Situations In this theory, players make interdependent choices, using brinksmanship and deterrence to achieve their goals. X. Models: How to Tell If They Are Helping or Not Models are only useful if they help us to understand political life, identify key aspects of policy, mimic reality, communicate concepts in a meaningful way, give means by which they can be tested, and hypothesize about the causes and consequences of public policy. A. Order and Simplify Reality Models need to strike a balance between simplifying reality in order to analyze political life and the danger of oversimplifying. B. Identify What Is Significant A difficult task in applying any model is determining what aspects of public policy must be included. C. Be Congruent with Reality While models are only concepts, they must have a relationship with reality. D. Provide Meaningful Communication A model is only meaningful if it is based on ideas for which some consensus exists. E. Direct Inquiry and Research Any model must be testable and capable of being validated. F. Suggest Explanations Models must go beyond description of public policy to explication . TEACHING OBJECTIVES 1. State the purpose and types of policy models as used in policy analysis 2. Identify the various policy models used to analyze the public policy process 2. Identify the steps in the process model of policy analysis 3. Review public policy as an institutional output 4. Indicate the fundamental quality of a rational public policy 5. Illustrate the incremental model adopted by policy makers 6. Explain how public policy is the equilibrium reached in the group struggle 7. Summarize the elite theory of public policy 8. Illustrate the public choice theory of policy analysis as a vote-maximizing model 9. State the game theory model of policy analysis 10. Identify the characteristics of an effective policy or model

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    15 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Considering their shortcomings, why do policy analysts rely on models? 2. Do all policy models share certain limitations? What are these? 3. What elements of American political culture are reflected in the various models discussed in this chapter? 4. Which of these models seem most in conflict with another model or models? Which seem most compatible? 5. Assign pairs of models to different groups, and have each group compare the two models, considering underlying assumptions, applications, strengths, and weaknesses. Have each group report their findings as a basis for a general discussion. LECTURE LAUNCHERS 1. Beginning with institutionalism, structure a lecture chronologically, considering different models as responses to both earlier models and to broader intellectual trends. 2. Taking a major policy area, begin by applying two sharply contrasting models to the issue, highlighting the differences in the two models. Focus the lecture on the element of choice exercised by analysts in using different models. 3. Structure a lecture around one policy area, and examine each model in relation to that policy area, inviting student participation in a discussion of the appropriateness of each model. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Models are used for all of the following reasons except to a. simplify our thinking about public policy. b. suggest explanations for public policy. c. evaluate the morality of different policies. d. identify important aspects of policy problems. Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 2.1: State the purpose and types of policy models as used in policy analysis Topic/Concept: Models for Policy Analysis Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 2. Those that focus on the three branches of government (executive, legislative, and judicial) when studying public policy would be primarily interested in the ________ model. a. institutional b. game theory c. public choice d. rational

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    16 Correct Answer: a LO#/text: 2.1: State the purpose and types of policy models as used in policy analysis Topic/Concept: Models for Policy Analysis Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 3. ________ is the distribution of money and power among federal, state, and local governments. a. Federalism b. Policy formulation c. Incrementalism d. Policy legitimation Correct Answer: a LO#/text: 2.3: Review public policy as an institutional output Topic/Concept: Institutionalism: Policy as Institutional Output Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 4. Which of the following is not part of the policy process? a. agenda setting b. policy evaluation c. problem identification d. policy input Correct Answer: d LO#/text: 2.2: Identify the steps in the process model of policy analysis Topic/Concept: Process: Policy as Political Activity Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 5. Which of the following has long been a central focus of political science? a. game theory b. public choice model c. government institutions d. rational model Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 2.3: Review public policy as an institutional output Topic/Concept: Institutionalism: Policy as Institutional Output Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply

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    17 6. “Maximum social gain” is most associated with the ________ model. a. institutional b. rational c. elite d. group Correct Answer: b LO#/text: 2.4: Indicate the fundamental quality of a rational public policy Topic/Concept: Rationalism: Policy as Maximum Social Gain Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 7. To make a rational policy decision, policymakers must a. choose a policy based only on its benefits. b. assess a policy based only on its costs. c. choose a policy with the greatest advantage. d. weigh benefits against costs. Correct Answer: d LO#/text: 2.4: Indicate the fundamental quality of a rational public policy Topic/Concept: Rationalism: Policy as Maximum Social Gain Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 8. Incrementalism views public policy as the a. product of group conflict. b. desire of the elites. c. continuation of past policies. d. most cost-effective alternative. Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 2.5: Illustrate the incremental model adopted by policy makers Topic/Concept: Incrementalism: Policy as Variations on the Past Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 9. Which of these models is least likely to propose entirely new programs and policies? a. rational model b. group model c. game theory model d. incremental model Correct Answer: d LO#/text: 2.5: Illustrate the incremental model adopted by policy makers

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    18 Topic/Concept: Incrementalism: Policy as Variations on the Past Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 10. The latent group in American society is comprised of those that a. generally support the political system. b. refuse to vote. c. are known as the elite. d. monopolize public power. Correct Answer: a LO#/text: 2.6: Explain how public policy is the equilibrium reached in the group struggle Topic/Concept: Group Theory: Policy as Equilibrium in the Group Struggle Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 11. Group theory views public policy as a. the balance that is achieved between competing interests. b. the desires of the elites. c. the continuation of past policies. d. incremental in nature. Correct Answer: a LO#/text: 2.6: Explain how public policy is the equilibrium reached in the group struggle Topic/Concept: Group Theory: Policy as Equilibrium in the Group Struggle Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 12. Elite theory maintains that a. society is divided into the many who have power and the few who do not. b. the few who govern are typical of the masses that are governed. c. the movement of non elites to elite positions should be as rapid as possible. d. elites share a consensus on the need to preserve the system. Correct Answer: d LO#/text: 2.7: Summarize the elite theory of public policy Topic/Concept: Elite Theory: Policy as Elite Preference Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 13. Elitism views the masses as largely a. passive, apathetic, and ill-informed. b. active, positive, and well-informed. c. fundamentally uncontrollable.

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    19 d. maintaining a direct influence over the decision-making behavior of elites. Correct Answer: a LO#/text: 2.7: Summarize the elite theory of public policy Topic/Concept: Elite Theory: Policy as Elite Preference Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 14. Public choice theory views policy as a. similar to the decisions made in marketplaces. b. driven by the desires of the few who have power. c. the outcome of conflict between self-interested groups. d. rational choices made in competitive situations. Correct Answer: a LO#/text: 2.8: Illustrate the public choice theory of policy analysis as a vote-maximizing model Topic/Concept: Public Choice Theory: Policy as Collective Decision Making by Self- Interested Individuals Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 15. As opposed to elite and group theory, public choice theory focuses on a. individuals. b. large groups. c. voters. d. legislators. Correct Answer: a LO#/text: 2.8: Illustrate the public choice theory of policy analysis as a vote-maximizing model Topic/Concept: Public Choice Theory: Policy as Collective Decision Making by Self- Interested Individuals Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 16. Public choice theory a. views individuals as reacting very differently in politics than in the marketplace. b. does not agree with Locke’s social contract view as to the origin of government. c. helps explain why political parties and candidates do not like to offer clear policy alternatives. d. does not examine the economic cost of externalities. Correct Answer: c

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    20 LO#/text: 2.8: Illustrate the public choice theory of policy analysis as a vote-maximizing model Topic/Concept: Public Choice Theory: Policy as Collective Decision Making by Self- Interested Individuals Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 17. In public choice theory, ________ occur when one actor or group imposes costs on others without compensation. a. group conflicts b. rational choices c. externalities d. deterrents Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 2.8: Illustrate the public choice theory of policy analysis as a vote-maximizing model Topic/Concept: Public Choice Theory: Policy as Collective Decision Making by Self- Interested Individuals Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 18. Deterrence is a. a form of elitism. b. effective against an irrational opponent. c. a psychological defense. d. a form of defense based on economic forces. Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 2.9: State the game theory model of policy analysis Topic/Concept: Game Theory: Policy as Rational Choice in Competitive Situations Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 19. The notion of deterrence is an important component of a. incrementalism. b. systems analysis. c. public choice theory. d. game theory. Correct Answer: d LO#/text: 2.9: State the game theory model of policy analysis Topic/Concept: Game Theory: Policy as Rational Choice in Competitive Situations Difficulty Level: Easy

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    21 Skill Level: Understanding 20. A useful model should do all of the following EXCEPT a. provide a simplified representation of reality. b. provide explanations for public policy. c. be testable. d. include all aspects of a given policy. Correct Answer: d LO#/text: 2.10: Identify the characteristics of an effective policy or model Topic/Concept: Models: How to Tell if They Are Helping or Not Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply TRUE/FALSE QUESTIONS 1. The public choice model is the approach preferred by this text. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 2.1: State the purpose and types of policy models as used in policy analysis Topic/Concept: Models for Policy Analysis Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 2. Agenda setting is the first step in the policy process. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 2.2: Identify the steps in the process model of policy analysis Topic/Concept: Process: Policy as Political Activity Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 3. The institutional model focuses on governmental structures. Correct Answer: True LO#/text: 2.3: Review public policy as an institutional output Topic/Concept: Institutionalism: Policy as Institutional Output Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 4. The rational model is based primarily on the dollar value of implementing a program. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 2.4: Indicate the fundamental quality of a rational public policy

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    22 Topic/Concept: Rationalism: Policy as Maximum Social Gain Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze 5. The incremental method is generally preferred in times of crisis, when profound change is required. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 2.5: Illustrate the incremental model adopted by policy makers Topic/Concept: Incrementalism: Policy as Variations on the Past Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze 6. The latent group of Americans is composed of those who choose not to vote. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 2.6: Explain how public policy is the equilibrium reached in the group struggle Topic/Concept: Group Theory: Policy as Equilibrium in the Group Struggle Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 7. The elite model presupposes a small group of leaders who are defined primarily by their inherited wealth. Correct Answer: False LO#/text: 2.7: Summarize the elite theory of public policy Topic/Concept: Elite Theory: Policy as Elite Preference Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze 8. The public choice model is based largely on the notion of the social contract, a principle central to the ideas of the founding fathers. Correct Answer: True LO#/text: 2.8: Illustrate the public choice theory of policy analysis as a vote-maximizing model Topic/Concept: Public Choice Theory: Policy as Collective Decision Making by Self- Interested Individuals Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 9. When the activities of one group or individual impose costs on others for which there is no compensation, this is an externality.

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    23 Correct Answer: True LO#/text: 2.8: Illustrate the public choice theory of policy analysis as a vote-maximizing model Topic/Concept: Public Choice Theory: Policy as Collective Decision Making by Self- Interested Individuals Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 10. A model must be capable of being tested to be of use. Correct Answer: True LO#/text: 2.10: Identify the characteristics of an effective policy or model Topic/Concept: Models: How to Tell if They Are Helping or Not Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. When choosing a model to aid in analyzing a given policy, what are the most important considerations, and why? LO#/text: 2.1: State the purpose and types of policy models as used in policy analysis Topic/Concept: Models for Policy Analysis Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Apply 2. Compare and contrast the process and institutional models. What assumptions do they share, and how do they differ? LO#/text: 2.2: Identify the steps in the process model of policy analysis Topic/Concept: Process: Policy as Political Activity Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze 3. Chose a public policy area and propose the application of two models to their analysis. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each model in this example? Do the models complement each other in the information they provide? LO#/text: 2.10: Identify the characteristics of an effective policy or model Topic/Concept: Models: How to Tell if They Are Helping or Not Difficulty Level: Moderate Skill Level: Analyze

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    24 4. Is the group theory model a form of incrementalism? Explain. LO#/text: 2.5: Illustrate the incremental model adopted by policy makers Topic/Concept: Incrementalism: Policy as Variations on the Past Difficulty Level: Difficult Skill Level: Analyze 5. Would game theory be viable without the notion of deterrence? Explain. LO#/text: 2.9: State the game theory model of policy analysis Topic/Concept: Game Theory: Policy as Rational Choice in Competitive Situations Difficulty Level: Difficult Skill Level: Evaluate WEB SITES American Political Science Association. Home page of academic political scientists’ professional organization. www.apsanet.org Public Agenda Online. Brief guide to a variety of policy issues, including public opinion surveys on these issues. www.publicagenda.org Polling Report. Compilation of recent public opinion polls on policy issues, political actors, government institutions, etc. www.pollingreport.com The Gallup Organization. Home page of the Gallup public opinion organization. www.gallup.com National Center for Policy Research. Conservative policy research organization, with studies on a variety of policy issues. www.nationalcenter.org Progressive Policy Institute. Liberal policy research organization, with policy briefs on a variety of issues. www.ppionline.org

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    25 CHAPTER 3 THE POLICYMAKING PROCESS: DECISION-MAKING ACTIVITIES CHAPTER OUTLINE AND SUMMARY I. The Policy Process: How Policies Are Made The process of policymaking is often the focus of policy studies. Although these are usually broken down into seemingly discrete steps, these processes tend to run into each other. II. Problem Identification and Agenda Setting Who defines political agendas, and how? Though agenda setting is often seen as a natural process, in fact agendas must be actively formulated and brought to the attention of the public and of lawmakers. III. Agenda Setting from the Bottom Up The “democratic-pluralist” model of policymaking is based on the idea that any number of groups or individuals can identify an important issue. The media can play an important role in focusing attention on particular problems. A. Public Opinion and Agenda Setting Public opinion changes, often in response to crises, and is often heavily influenced by the media. B. The Social Media and Agenda Setting The social media now offer new opportunities for agenda setting. C. Popular Perceptions of Policymaking Americans believe policy is made from the top down but should be made from the bottom up. IV. Agenda Setting from the Top Down Focusing on the elite may be the key to understanding agenda setting. A variety of tactics are used by this group to form policy and to bolster the idea that elite policymaking reflects public opinion. A. Elite Agenda Setting According to this model, a small group directs most agenda setting. B. Political Entrepreneurship Those in the running for political office maintain a presence before voters, packaging their ideas and policies in ways that drive public opinion C. The President and White House Staff The president and the executive branch are generally expected to be initiators of policy proposals, D. Congress and Legislative Staff Congress is frequently portrayed as the arbiter of policy proposals initiated by others, but leaders of Congress sometimes try to set forth their own agendas.

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    26 E. Interest groups Interest groups may initiate their own policy proposals, perhaps in association with members of Congress who share the same interest. V. Agenda Setting: The Mass Media The media play a complex role in agenda setting. The media can decide what issues gain prominence, select how they will be presented, and create new opinions. A. Media Power The media, though often represented as objective observers, are also players in politics. B. News making The process of news making involves influential choices about what will be covered. C. Media Bias Media bias includes political partisanship, but also distortion for the sake of drama. VI. Formulating Policy At the policy formulation stage, policymakers examine alternative policies. The role of think tanks in this process is to provide the foundations for public policy. A. Think Tanks Think tanks coordinate both agenda setting and policy formulation, and bring together intellectuals and government figures. B. Examples: The Brookings Institution, The American Enterprise Institute, The Heritage Foundation, Center for American Progress, CATO Institute, The Council on Foreign Relations VII. Interest Groups and Policymaking From direct involvement in lawmaking, through campaign contributions, to personal relations, interest groups use a variety of tactics to influence public policy. Though many Americans feel that the influence of PACs, the media, and lobbyists in Washington is excessive, it is hard to substantiate that belief. A. Lobbying Lobbying covers a range of activities, from efforts to directly influence Congress, to more indirect paths. B. PACs Unlike lobbyists, the actions of PACs focus solely on gathering and distributing funding. VIII. Policy Legitimation: The Proximate Policymakers The actions of “proximate policymakers”—such as members of Congress, the president, and interest groups—have traditionally been the focus of policy studies. Yet these actors only guide the final stage of policymaking. A. Formal Lawmaking Process Congress monopolizes the process of actually creating laws, though many other actors influence legislation.

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    27 B. Party Influence Party loyalty plays a very strong role in Congress, though ideology may cut across party lines. C. Presidential Influence The influence of a president over policymaking is largely dependent on support or opposition from Congress, which is influenced by party control. D. Constituency Influence Members of Congress are rarely constrained by constituents’ wishes and generally choose to act as public trustees. E. Contributor Influence While the cost of running for Congress clearly makes candidates dependent on contributions, it is less clear what effect those contributions have on policymaking. IX. The Budgetary and Appropriations Processes The process of coming up with a budget every year is the joint work of Congress and the president. A. OMB—Preparing the Presidential Budget The Office of Management and Budget oversees the process of preparing the fiscal budget. B. House and Senate Budget Committees The two houses of Congress review the president’s budget, issuing two resolutions that summarize their findings. C. Appropriations Acts Appropriations are approved of in separate bills—usually 13—created by Congress. D. Appropriations Committees The Senate and House of Representatives assign the work of reviewing appropriations to committees and subcommittees. E. Supplemental Appropriations In the case of unforeseen events, Congress may approve supplemental appropriations. F. Revenue Acts Legislation concerning taxation is isolated from budget considerations. G. Presidential Veto As with other legislation, the president has the power to veto budget legislation, but was denied the line-item veto in 1996. H. Continuing Resolutions. Continuing resolutions allow the government to keep functioning when the budget is not signed by the start of the fiscal year. I. Shutdowns Occasionally “shutdowns” occur when the deadline set by the continuing resolution is not met. J. Executive Orders Presidents have used executive orders since George Washington, and Lincoln’s were the most far-reaching. President Obama has used executive orders to circumvent Congress when it failed to act as he wished (immigration, Patient Protection and

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    28 Affordable Care Act deadlines). X. Policy Implementation: The Bureaucracy Policies are ultimately implemented by the bureaucracy, involving myriad decisions which continue the policymaking process. A. Implementation and Policymaking Policymaking takes place in the process of implementation as legislation is turned into action. B. Regulation and Policymaking The agencies of the bureaucracy are responsible for rule making, a process that is made public through the Federal Register . C. Adjudication and Policymaking The bureaucracies have the power to act as the judiciary in evaluating compliance with regulations. D. Bureaucratic Discretion and Policymaking Though bureaucrats follow regulations, at many levels they have considerable discretion. E. Policy Bias of Bureaucrats The bias of bureaucrats is not as much influenced by party loyalty as by loyalty to their own mission. F. Regulations are Suffocating America The explosive growth in federal regulations in the last two decades has added enormous costs to the American economy. The cost of regulations does not appear in the federal budget. Rather, they are paid for by businesses, employees, and consumers. TEACHING OBJECTIVES 1. Illustrate the step-by-step sequence of the policymaking process 2. State the importance of problem identification and agenda setting in the policymaking process 3. Identify the American bottom-up approach of policymaking 4. Argue that agenda setting begins informally in corporate boardrooms, social clubs, and discussion groups 5. Analyze the role of the media in creating events and personalities 6. Define the role of think tanks in policy formulation 7. Outline five ways in which interest groups influence government policy 8. Illustrate the formal process by which a bill becomes a law 9. Review the policymaking that occurs in the budgetary and appropriations processes 10. Examine role of the bureaucracy in policy implementation

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    29 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. At what step or steps in the policymaking process does the public have the most and the least input? 2. How do public perceptions of the policymaking process differ most notably from those of legislators? 3. What are the difficulties in determining the influence of such groups as the media or PACs on policymaking? 4. What role does the media play in setting policy agendas? What limits the impact of the media in this regard? 5. Compare interest groups with think tanks, considering the impact they have on policymaking. LECTURE LAUNCHERS 1. Begin with a statement reflecting popular perceptions of the influence of interest groups, such as “Interest groups control Congress.” Center your lecture on an examination of the extent and limitations of influence from the various actors discussed in the chapter. 2. Begin with a detailed evaluation of one of a think tank—its goals, its prominent members, its activities—and then structure your lecture around an analysis of the policymaking process in light of the work of think tanks. At each stage of the process, include the involvement of other actors—PACs, the media—in the policymaking process. 3. Structure your lecture around the policymaking process, with an emphasis on the complex way that steps merge into each other, influencing and influenced by subsequent steps. Instead of beginning with problem identification, begin with policy evaluation to show how earlier implementations engender a continuous cycle of policymaking. MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1. Deciding what issues will be decided and what problem will be addressed by government is part of the ________ process. a. policy legitimization b. policy evaluation c. agenda setting d. policy implementation Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 3.1: Illustrate the step-by-step sequence of the policymaking process Topic/Concept: The Policy Process: How Policies Are Made Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 2. The prevailing model of policymaking in America is a. the elite model.

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    30 b. group or interest group theory. c. the democratic-pluralist model. d. public choice theory. Correct Answer: c LO#/text: 3.3: Identify the American bottom-up approach of policymaking Topic/Concept: Agenda Setting from the Bottom Up Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 3. The _______ model of agenda setting focuses on the role of leaders in business, finance, media, and government. a. group b. rational c. institutional d. elite Correct Answer: d LO#/text: 3.4: Argue that agenda setting begins informally in corporate boardrooms, social clubs, and discussion groups Topic/Concept: Agenda Setting from the Top Down Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 4. The ________ is generally expected to be the initiator of policy proposals. a. Supreme Court b. executive branch c. Congress d. judiciary Correct Answer: b LO#/text: 3.4: Argue that agenda setting begins informally in corporate boardrooms, social clubs, and discussion groups Topic/Concept: Agenda Setting from the Top Down Difficulty Level: Easy Skill Level: Understanding 5. The ________ is generally portrayed as the arbiter of policy proposals. a. Supreme Court b. president c. Congress d. judiciary Correct Answer: c

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