GCSE Psychology (AQA) 2024: Brain & Neuropsychology

cell body

nucleus containing DNA

dendrites

carry electrical signals from neighboring neurons to cell

axon

carries signals away from the cell body and down the length of the neuron,

myelin sheath

fatty layer that covers/protects the axon and speeds up the electrical signal

nodes of ranvier

gap

| - makes the signal go faster as it "jumps" across each gap

terminal button

end of axon

| - communicate with the neuron

what is an electric transmission?

when a neuron is in a resting state the inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to the outside
when firing, the ch...

synapse

area at the end of 2 neurons that allows a signal to pass from one neuron to the next

synaptic cleft

gap between 2 neurons

neurotransmitter

chemical released from synaptic vesicles

synaptic transmission

process by which neighboring neurons communicate with each other

presynaptic neuron

neuron that transmits the message

postsynaptic neuron

neuron that is receiving the message

release of neurotransmitters

electrical signal causes vesicles (in presynaptic terminal button) to release

reuptake of neurotransmitters

neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft attaches to postsynaptic receptor sites
excitatory neurotransmitters
some neurotransmitters (adrenaline) generally increase the positive charge of the next neuron-makes it more likely to fire

outline Hebb's theory of neuroplasticity (9t)

synaptic connections become stronger the more they're used
brain isn't fixed in structure and can change and develop

effect of damage on language area

usually only in the left hemisphere
Broca's area (controls speech): leads to difficulty remembering and forming words

what is a strength of Penfield's study (9s)

| *precise method

P- used a precise method of studying the brain
E- could stimulate the exact same part of the brain and have verbal reports from awake patients

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GCSE Psychology (AQA) 2024: Brain & Neuropsychology

Term	Definition
what is the nervous system?	-network of cells -main communication system -collects and responds to information coordinates organs including the brain
what is the structure of the central nervous system?	brain - spinal cord
what is the structure of the peripheral nervous system?	autonomic nervous system - somatic nervous system
what is the structure of the autonomic nervous system?	parasympathetic branch - sympathetic branch
what is the function of the central nervous system?	right hemisphere controls left side of the body and vice versa brain: conscious awareness and decision making brain stem: autonomic functions, some reflex responses and consciousness spinal cord: carries incoming and outgoing messages between the brain and the rest of the body
what is the function of the peripheral nervous system?	supports the actions of the PNS - receives messages from the CNS and sends messages to it
what is the function of the autonomic nervous system?	coordinates important functions that are important/vital for life (breathing, heart rate and digestion) involuntary involved in the body’s response to stress
what is the function of the somatic nervous system?	controls voluntary movement of our muscles voluntary/under our control reflex responses sends messages to muscles and takes in info from sensory organs
what is homeostasis?	-maintains a balanced internal state by monitoring activity of the body organs (37* body temp)
what does the sympathetic nervous system represent?	physiological arousal (breathing rate gets faster, heart beats rapidly, sweating) prepares the body for the fight or flight response to cope with stress
what does the parasympathetic nervous system represent?	opposite to sympathetic rest and digest response returns the body to it’s normal resting state after the threat or stress has passed
what happens when the brain detects a threat?	hypothalamus identifies a threat (stressor) - sympathetic division of the ANS is triggered, fight or flight
what happens when the body releases adrenaline?	-ANS changes from parasympathetic (rest) state to (arousal) sympathetic state
what is flight or fight?	immediate and automatic - physiological changes due to action of adrenaline (eg. increased heart rate, decreased digestion)
how do physiological changes help us?	-these changes are designed to help us confront the threat (fight) or give us the energy to run away (flight)
what happens when the threat has passed?	the parasympathetic division returns the body to a resting state “rest and digest”
what are a few examples of the body returning to a resting state?	increased heart rate=decreased heart rate dilates pupils=constricts pupils inhibits digestion=stimulates digestion
outline the James-Lange theory of emotion (9t)	EVENT-AROUSAL-INTERPRETATION-EMOTION -event occurs -hypothalamus arouses sympathetic division of ANS, adrenaline gets released (physiological arousal) -brain interprets physiological activity and causes emotion no physical change=no emotion
what is a strength of the James-Lange theory of emotion (9t) *real life	P- real life examples of when emotions follow after physiological arousal E-emotional states come after physiological arousal in the case of phobias L- supports the theory
what is a weakness of the James-Lange theory of emotion (9t) *Cannon-Bard	P- challenged by the Cannon-Bard theory E- some emotions occur at the same time (embarrassment) as physiological arousal (we blush simultaneously), some physiological changes don’t lead to emotion as the James-Lange theory would predict L- the Cannon-Brad theory draws attention to emotional situations the James-Lange theory would struggle to explain
what is a weakness of the James-Lange theory of emotion (9t) *Two-Factor	P- the Two-Factor theory suggests emotion may be more complex E- we need social cues to correctly label the emotion we’re feeling (heart racing in dark alley and heart racing kissing crush), can explain how we can interpret the same physical state differently based on the situation L-shows that the James-Lange theory doesn’t explain how a person “decides” what emotion they’re experiencing
sensory neuron	from PNS to CNS long dendrite short axon
relay neuron	connect sensory to motor short dendrite short axon
motor neuron	from CNS to muscles/glands short dendrite long axon
cell body	nucleus containing DNA
dendrites	carry electrical signals from neighboring neurons to cell
axon	carries signals away from the cell body and down the length of the neuron,
myelin sheath	fatty layer that covers/protects the axon and speeds up the electrical signal
nodes of ranvier	gap \| - makes the signal go faster as it "jumps" across each gap
terminal button	end of axon \| - communicate with the neuron
what is an electric transmission?	when a neuron is in a resting state the inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to the outside when firing, the charge inside the cell changes which creates an action potential this creates the electrical signal (impulse) that travels down the axon to the end of the neuron
synapse	area at the end of 2 neurons that allows a signal to pass from one neuron to the next
synaptic cleft	gap between 2 neurons
neurotransmitter	chemical released from synaptic vesicles
synaptic transmission	process by which neighboring neurons communicate with each other
presynaptic neuron	neuron that transmits the message
postsynaptic neuron	neuron that is receiving the message
release of neurotransmitters	electrical signal causes vesicles (in presynaptic terminal button) to release
reuptake of neurotransmitters	neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft attaches to postsynaptic receptor sites chemical message turns into electrical impulse remaining neurotransmitters reabsorbed
excitatory neurotransmitters	some neurotransmitters (adrenaline) generally increase the positive charge of the next neuron-makes it more likely to fire
inhibitory neurotransmitters	some neurotransmitters (serotonin) generally increase the negative charge of the next neuron- makes it less likely to fire
what causes electrical impulses?	when there are more excitatory signals than inhibitory signals the neuron fires
outline Hebb's theory of neuroplasticity (9t)	synaptic connections become stronger the more they're used brain isn't fixed in structure and can change and develop the brain can adopt, change structure and form new connections as we learn at any age learning leaves a trace called an engram-which can become permanent if learning is rehearsed during learning, cell assemblies fire together-the more this happens the stronger the synaptic connections become more efficient neuronal growth occurs to manage new learning more efficiently
what is a strength of Hebb's theory of neuroplasticity (9t) \| *scientific basis	P- has scientific basis E- Hebb explained learning in terms of brain function (objective basis) for understanding behavior L- shows that learning can be studied through brain processes (validity+credibility)
what is a strength of Hebb's theory of neuroplasticity (9t) \| *rats	P- real world application to education E- he found that rats that were raised in stimulating settings were better able to find their way through mazes as adults L- could be applied to education by creating more stimulating environments to encourage learning (neuronal growth)
what is a weakness of Hebb's theory of neuroplasticity (9t) \| *reductionist	P- learning is reduced to a neuronal level E- learning itself is complicated and involves different levels of understanding but other factors aren't considered eg-as a social activity (learning alone, being directly instructed) L- reduces learning to the activity of brain cells and doesn't look at the wider factors that create learning
what is the structure of the brain?	2 hemispheres \| - 4 lobes
frontal lobe location	front of brain controls thinking and planning motor area controls movement
parietal lobe location	behind frontal lobe \| - somatosensory area is where sensations are processed
occipital lobe location	back of brain \| - controls vision
temporal lobe location	behind frontal lobe and below parietal lobe \| - auditory area, related to speech and learning
cerebellum location	receives information from spinal cord and the brain coordinates movement, balance, attention and language "little brain"
effect of damage on motor areas	damage to the left hemisphere affects the right side of the body and vice versa
effect of damage on somatosensory area	most sensitive body parts take up most "space" \| - damage means less ability to feel pain
effect of damage on visual area	-damage to left hemisphere affects right visual field of each eye and vice versa
effect of damage on auditory area	-may cause potential or total hearing loss \| more serious the damage=more serious the loss
effect of damage on language area	usually only in the left hemisphere Broca's area (controls speech): leads to difficulty remembering and forming words Wernicke's area (left temporal lobe): leads to difficulty understanding and producing meaningful speech
outline Penfield's study of the interpretive cortex (9s)	A: to investigate the function of the temporal lobe using the Montreal procedure M: operated on patients with severe epilepsy, he could stimulate areas of the brain in a conscious patient who reported their experiences R:-when stimulation was applied to the different areas the patients reported different things: -visual cortex=colors, shadows and crude outlines of objects -somatosensory cortex=tingling sensation or a false sense of movement -temporal lobe (in either hemisphere)=experiences and feelings (hallucinations) associated with those experiences, including deja vu C: area stimulated in the temporal lobe has a role in storing memories of previous events stored in 2 different ways: facts of the experience and facts for the individual the interpretive cortex stores info on feelings
what is a strength of Penfield's study (9s) \| *precise method	P- used a precise method of studying the brain E- could stimulate the exact same part of the brain and have verbal reports from awake patients L- useful in enabling a "map of our brain functions" and would benefit neuroscience immensely
what is a weakness of Penfield's study (9s) \| *unusual sample	P- unusual sample E- all participants had severe epilepsy L- may not reflect people that have "normal" brains
what is a weakness of Penfield's study (9s) \| *mixed results	P- mixed results in later research E- findings weren't consistent as in later research only 40/520 people recalled past experiences when the temporal lobe was stimulated L- interpretive cortex doesn't always respond in the same way (lacks validity)
how does the structure and function of the brain relate to behavior?	different structures within the brain control different behaviors temporal lobe and amygdala=emotion and aggression
how does the structure and function of the brain relate to cognition?	-evidence that different types of memory are in different areas of the brain
how does cognitive neuroscience relate to mental illness?	helps to explain mental health problems \| - low serotonin levels affects thinking (eg. suicidal thoughts) and behavior (low mood, depression)
what is the importance of localisation?	damage to specific areas of brain effect certain areas/behaviors extent and seriousness determines severity
what are the effects of a stroke?	-brain is deprived of oxygen (lack of blood supply) areas of the brain die leading to effects on behavior (unless other areas take over localised functions
what are the effect of neurological damage on motor ability?	damage to motor areas can lead to problems with fine (picking up pen) and complex (walking) movements damage to left hemisphere affects right side of body and vice versa
what are the effects of neurological damage on behavior?	aphasia=inability to understand and use language Broca's aphasia=problems producing speech (speak slowly + difficulty finding the right words) Wernicke's aphasia=problems understanding speech (use of nonsense words and reading+writing are severely affected)
what is a CT scan?	large doughnut shaped scanner that rotates \| - take lots of pictures which are combined to give a detailed picture
what is a PET scan?	measures metabolic activity patient is injected with radioactive substance (radiotracer) when the substance is taken up by the brain the most active areas will absorb more of it brain activity is show on computer screen in different colors (red and yellow=more active than blue)
what is an fMRI scan?	measures blood oxygen levels in the brain active brain area=more oxygen so more blood is directed to it picked up through radio signals and produce 3D images on a computer scree
evaluate the use of fMRI scans	`strengths: -shows important info about which areas are being used at what time -safe (no radiation used) -superior (extremely clear images) weaknesses: -very expensive -must stay very still -time lag causes problems when interpreting info`
evaluate the use of PET scans	`strengths: -shows brain in action -shows localisation of function weaknesses: -extremely expensive -sometimes difficult to interpret -unethical (radioactive injection)`
evaluate the use of CT scans	strengths: -useful for revealing abnormal structures (tumors+structural damage) -quality is higher than x-rays weaknesses: -high levels of radiation (cant be used often) -only produce still images (structural info) theres no info on activity of the "live brain"
outline Tulving's gold memory study (9s)	A: to investigate if episodic memories produce different blood flow patterns to semantic ones M: -6 participants injected with radioactive gold they monitored blood flow using PET scans, repeated measures -8 memory trials: -4 episodic (holidays they had been on as a child -4 semantic (recalling history facts) R:-different blood flow in 3/6 participants -semantic memories=greater concentration of blood towards posterior cortex -episodic memories=greater concentration of blood towards frontal lobe C:-suggests that episodic and semantic memories are separate forms of LTM and that they're located in different areas of the brain (localised) -supports the idea that memory has a biological bases
what is a strength of Tulving's gold memory study (9s) \| *objective evidence	P- produced objective (scientific) evidence E- evidence from brain scans are difficult to fake L- unbiased evidence
what is a weakness of Tulving's gold memory study (9s) \| *sample	P- restricted sample E- only 6 participants including Tulving and his wife conclusion was only based on 3 of the participants L- data is inconclusive, difficult to generalise results to all people
what is a weakness of Tulving's gold memory study (9s) \| *episodic+semantic=similar	P- episodic and semantic memories are often very similar E- episodic and semantic memories are difficult to separate L- which may explain inconclusive evidence

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GCSE Psychology (AQA) 2024: Brain & Neuropsychology

what is the nervous system?

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