Physical Education: Content Knowledge: 2. Student Growth and Development

• Early childhood (0-6 or 7 years)

• Infancy (0-1 year)

• Toddler (1-3 years)

• Preschool Childhood (3-6 or 7 years)

• Middle Childhood (6-12 years)

• Adolescence (12-21 years)

The stages are not fixed, as development is a continuous process without clear boundaries.

• Gross motor skills involve large movements using major muscle groups.

• Fine motor skills involve small movements using the hands.

The other three key areas of development are language, cognitive, and social-emotional and behavioral.

A skill or ability that most children achieve by a certain age, such as walking, talking, or problem-solving.

Milestones vary by child and provide a general guide for typical development.

• 1 year: Pulls up to stand; walks holding onto furniture.

• 2 years: Kicks a ball; runs.

• 3 years: Strings items together, like beads; uses a fork.

• 4 years: Catches a large ball most of the time; unbuttons buttons.

• 5 years: Hops on one foot; buttons some buttons.

If milestones are delayed, always consult a healthcare provider.

Accidents

Preventive measures, such as supervision and safety equipment, can reduce risks significantly.

1. Underestimating motor abilities: not realizing how skilled the child is at actions like climbing or balancing.

2. Overestimating cognitive abilities: assume children think like adults, overlooking how differently children perceive and reason.

Recognizing a child’s true capabilities helps prevent accidents by setting appropriate safety measures.

cognitive

Understanding cognitive abilities helps assess the children’s understanding of danger.

• Teach climbing or hanging on playground equipment.

• Introduce bicycles, tricycles, or scooters.

• Provide toys for building, stringing, or lacing.

• Encourage unstructured play to explore physical limits safely.

Activities like self-dressing or using utensils also support fine motor skill development in young children.

• Steady growth: 2 - 2.5 inches and 4 -7 pounds per year.

• Strengthening of muscles and increased lung capacity.

• Development of gross and fine motor skills.

• Baby teeth are replaced by adult teeth.

Boys and girls develop at similar rates during this stage, but this changes as puberty approaches.

• Prefrontal lobe starts maturing, aiding in planning and understanding consequences.

• Corpus callosum thickens, enabling faster processing and complex thinking.

• Myelination of the hippocampus enhances memory transfer from short-term to long-term.

• Increased independence and desire for peer acceptance.

• Development of longer attention spans and understanding of opposing viewpoints.

• Introduction to peer pressure, body image concerns, and bullying.

Emotional development is deeply influenced by interactions with peers and family support.

• Spend quality time and show affection.

• Encourage responsibility with household tasks.

• Set clear rules and boundaries.

• Promote healthy eating, sleeping, and exercise habits.

Discussing goals, friendships, and respect helps foster positive traits during this crucial phase.

• Adolescence encompasses the broader social and emotional changes from childhood to adulthood.

• Puberty specifically refers to biological and physical developments leading to sexual maturation.

• 
  Early adolescence: (ages 11-14)

• Mid adolescence: (ages 15-17)

• Late adolescence: (ages 18-21)

Early adolescence (ages 11-14): Rapid growth and curiosity about sex begin.

Mid adolescence (ages 15-17): Peak growth, sexual experimentation, and exploration of sexual orientation.

Late adolescence (ages 18-21): Slowed growth with a coherent and understood sexual identity.

• Females: between ages 8 and 13

• Males: between ages 9 and 14

The timing of puberty varies due to genetic, biological, and environmental factors.

• 
  Physical changes: Puberty brings muscle, brain, and skeletal development, typically earlier in girls.

• Social changes: Peer group shifts, independence grows, and self-esteem evolves.

• Personal changes: Adolescents form opinions and discover their role in the world.

• Emotional changes: Intense mood swings and feelings of isolation may occur.

• Cognitive changes: Abstract thinking and advanced communication skills develop.

These changes are interconnected and influenced by individual and environmental factors.

Rapid physical growth typically occurs one to two years after the onset of puberty.

• 
  Nutrition

• Individual genetic history

• Socioeconomic status

• Exercise and physical activity

• 
  Men: Enlargement of the penis, experience of ejaculation, and increased muscle mass

• Female: Development of breast tissue, increase in body fat around hips and thigh, and hardening of bones.

Both sexes experience growth in height, weight, pubic and underarm hair, and may lead to acne and body odor.

• Running

• Walking

• Lifting weights

• Dancing

• Aerobics

• Yoga

• Participating in sports

• Proper nutrition supports physical changes and healthy growth.

• A well-balanced diet helps combat obesity and boosts energy.

• Healthy eating is linked to improved academic performance and cognitive abilities.

Adolescents should avoid extremes, such as overeating or under-eating, as these can lead to obesity or eating disorders.

• Diffusion

• Foreclosure

• Moratorium

• Achievement

These stages offer one framework for understanding self-sense in adolescence, but the process is highly individual.

Diffusion: Undecided; lacks strong opinions or direction.

Foreclosure: A done deal; adopts parental values without questioning them.

Moratorium: Audition; explores different beliefs and identities without commitment.

Achievement: Declaration; commits to a chosen identity and relinquishes outdated childhood values.

• 
  Teaching strategies that provide support as children progress in skills.

• Encourages gradual mastery of tasks with feedback and guidance.

Scaffolding helps children feel secure and motivated as they learn.

• Opportunities for practice: Safe spaces to run, play, or explore.

• Supportive environments: Access to resources like playgrounds or sports equipment.

• Physical impairments: Challenges like motor disorders may impact development.

Environmental and social factors can either support or hinder a child’s ability to progress in motor skills.

• Begin with basic actions (e.g., jumping or kicking).

• Progress through stages with instruction and a lot of practice.

• Individual characteristics and environment influence development.

Repetition and feedback are key in helping children master each stage of motor skills.

It is crucial for assessing students' physical skills and abilities.

• Conducting risk assessments.

• Differentiating activities based on skill levels.

• Providing clear instructions.

• Demonstrations.

• Continuously monitoring the environment.

It plays a key role in understanding students' knowledge, thinking processes, and problem-solving abilities.

By observing their attitudes, values, and emotional responses during activities.

Because it promotes holistic development.

• Psychomotor domain enhances physical abilities.

• Cognitive domain fosters intellectual growth.

• Affective domain supports emotional and social well-being.

Integrating these domains into instruction ensures that students receive a well-rounded education that prepares them for various aspects of life.

Through observation, peer assessments, and group projects.

• Grinds: Slower, controlled movements (e.g., weightlifting).

• Ballistics: Quick, high-repetition movements (e.g., gymnastics spins).

Understanding the speed and control required reduces injury risk.

Exercises grouped by the biomechanical demands of the human body.

These patterns are foundational for developing strength, coordination, and overall physical fitness.

• Lunges: One leg forward, bent, with the other leg trailing; common in yoga and weightlifting.

• Squats: Both legs together, thighs and glutes engaged; used for tasks like picking up objects.

1. Squat

2. Hinge

3. Lunge

4. Push

5. Pull

6. Twist or Rotate

7. Gait or Walk

Walking and running.

Good form is essential for developing these natural movement skills.

• Rotations: Circular movements, often clockwise or counterclockwise (e.g., figure skating, gymnastics).

• Twists: Related to rotations but often involve controlled turning of the torso (e.g., discus throw).

• Locomotor movements

• Non-locomotor movements

• Manipulative movements

These are foundational skills for more complex physical activities.

Locomotor movements: Traveling from one place to another.

Non-locomotor movements: Anchored movements around the body’s axis.

Manipulative movements: Using body parts to move or manipulate objects.

They build the foundation for complex physical activities, enhance motor skills, and support daily life tasks like self-care and recreational activities.

Mastery of these movements early in life predicts lifelong physical activity.

• Even rhythm: Walking, running, hopping, jumping.

• Uneven rhythm: Skipping, galloping, sliding, crawling.

• Bending

• Stretching

• Twisting

• Turning

• Swaying

Movements occur in place and focus on balance and flexibility

• balance

• flexibility

• body control

• spatial awareness

These are essential for maintaining posture and developing body control in sports and dance.

• Hand-eye coordination.

• Dexterity for tasks like writing and dressing.

• Precision in sports activities, like hitting or kicking.

Manipulative skills also enhance fine motor control for self-care and recreational activities.

• Gross motor skills: Kicking a ball, punting, hitting in tennis or baseball.

• Fine motor skills: Writing, brushing teeth, assembling puzzles.

• Gross motor skills.

• Cardiovascular health.

• Balance and coordination.

• Independence in daily activities.

A pedagogy that modifies instructional strategies to account for students’ diverse cultural backgrounds.

CRT helps students connect their cultural experiences to classroom learning.

• Reciprocal teaching: Students lead class discussions, expressing material through their cultural perspectives.

• Cooperative learning: Collaborative group work emphasizing shared responsibility and cultural appreciation.

These strategies foster cultural respect and deeper learning

• Promotes respect and understanding among diverse students.

• Encourages inclusive learning environments.

• Supports personal development and choice in learning.

• Enhances students’ competence and motivation to learn.

1. Establishes inclusion.

2. Encourages personal development and choice.

3. Enhances competence.

4. Develops learning values.

These characteristics make CRT effective across disciplines.

• Feeling disoriented in a new cultural environment due to unfamiliar social cues.

• It can cause anxiety and impact a student’s ability to adapt and engage in the classroom.

Teachers can help students navigate culture shock by promoting socialization and inclusion.

The continuous process of acquiring norms, values, and behaviors.

In the classroom, it helps students learn what behaviors are acceptable and how to interact in a diverse environment.

• Learn about students’ cultural backgrounds.

• Adapt lessons to include diverse perspectives.

• Encourage students to share their viewpoints and experiences.

• Use culturally relevant examples in instruction.

Effective CRT builds connections between students’ lives and classroom content.

Helping families navigate various social service systems related to unmet needs.

Schools use it to connect families with community resources like housing, medical care, or transportation assistance.

• Unmet needs like food, housing, or medical care can hinder students’ ability to focus and learn effectively.

• Supporting these needs ensures a stable learning environment, promotes equity, and improves overall student well-being.

• Offer free or reduced lunch programs.

• Provide after-school or summer meals.

• Connect families with SNAP or local food banks.

• Host community suppers to involve families.

Addressing food insecurity helps students focus on their education without the distraction of hunger.

• Provide contacts for low-income housing and public housing.

• Share apartment listings and local shelter options.

• Collaborate with community organizations addressing homelessness.

• Access to counseling and group therapy.

• Referrals for case management and psychiatry.

• Partnerships with sliding-scale mental health providers.

• Crisis hotline information (e.g., 1-800-273-TALK).

Early intervention in mental health can prevent long-term academic and social challenges.

• Offer on-site vision, hearing, and dental screenings.

• Provide information about Medicaid and income-based medical services.

• Help families navigate the Affordable Care Act application process.

• Share information on public transit and ride-share options.

• Assist with carpooling or alternative solutions for families without vehicles.

• Offer resource lists in multiple languages.

• Provide English as a Second Language (ESL) programs for students and families.

• Facilitate communication between families and community services

Schools should provide resource lists in multiple languages to assist families.

Visual perception is crucial for motor development as it helps children understand and interact with their environment.

Also known as the awareness of body position and movement, it plays a vital role in motor development.

It allows children to control their movements, maintain balance, and develop coordination.

By helping children process sounds that can guide their movements.

Also known as the sense of touch, it is important for motor development because it helps children explore and interact with their surroundings.

Also known as the sense of body position and movement without visual cues, it is essential for motor development.

By providing a variety of activities that engage multiple senses.