Criminal Justice Administration Comprehensive Doctoral Review Examination

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Comprehensive Doctoral Review ExaminationPresented in Partial Fulfillmentof the Requirements for the DegreeDoctor of Business Administration (or Philosophy)By“YOUR NAME”Healthcare AdministrationCriminal Justice AdministrationIn the context of your doctoral research on "The Impact of Privatization on the Quality ofHealthcare in Prisons," discuss how reductionism, as a theoretical framework, can be applied tounderstand the various components of healthcare quality within correctional facilities. In yourresponse, address the three key aspects of reductionism—ontological reductionism,methodological reductionism, and theory reductionism—and explain how each will contribute toyour research design. Additionally, how can qualitative research methods be utilized to gatherdata on inmate perceptions of healthcare quality, and what implications do these findings havefor the broader theoretical understanding of privatization in correctional healthcare?Word Count Requirement:1500–2000 words

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2TheoryPart 1In research, theory refers to defined or proposed ways through which researchers are ableto make sense of concepts or situations. It is through a theory that researchers are able to presentreliable solutions to a problem (Udo-Akang, 2012). Theory can be viewed as a generalizationthat is used to explain a phenomenon in line with the reasons why it occurs and how it occurs.General statements that are used to explain the cause or effect of a phenomenon are based onspecific theoretical frameworks (Stam, 2010). A theory is a powerful tool through whichresearchers connect events and observations into a single unified web. The relationship amongthe statements of a theory defines the power of the theory as a basis upon which problems aresolved and phenomena are understood (Harlow, 2009). A theory plays an important function inexplaining, describing, controlling or predicting phenomena in different or divergent contexts(Udo-Akang, 2012).The interactions of the various variables of phenomena constitute a theoreticalframework. Theory can also be viewed as a system or a group of laws or rules and assumptionsthat are used to explain the implications of phenomena (Zahra, & Newey, 2009). Theories areused to make inferences or conclusions on a specific issue. The generalizations that are presentedwithin theoretical frameworks often indicate new research observations (Wacker, 1998). Theseobservations are constituted within a theory if they can be tested through scientific inquiry and ifthey are applicable in predicting or explaining certain phenomena. When knowledge is organized

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3in a systematic manner, it also becomes and constitutes a theory. Theories are specificallyapplied to solve problems in the real world (Stam, 2010).Credible or reliable research should be grounded on a specific theory or theories. Thismeans that research should be informed and guided by theoretical views. Research findings cantherefore be used to describe or explain a theory or be used to come up with new theories (Udo-Akang, 2012). There are two main types of theories upon which researches are grounded. Theseare philosophical theories and scientific theories. Philosophical theories are those whose subjectmatter or what they postulate is based on ideas rather than empirical research data (Harlow,2009). The truth behind philosophical theories does not require an empirical research process orinquiry in order to be proven. Ethical theories and frameworks are examples of philosophicaltheories (Corley & Gioia, 2011).Scientific theory refers to explanations or descriptions of a phenomenon that are based onempirical data or facts. Scientific theories are therefore those that have been proven throughobservations, surveys or experiments (Zahra, & Newey, 2009). The predictions of a scientifictheory must be predictable, accurate and consistent, regardless of the discipline of study orresearch. The evidence that supports scientific theory is strong because it can be authenticated(Udo-Akang, 2012). Scientific theories are used to define and explain a wide range of concepts,issues and phenomena. The diversity of the concepts that are described by a scientific theory isused to define its level of complexity (Harlow, 2009). As scientific knowledge expands, theaccuracy of scientific theory improves. This is due to the role of research in improvingtheoretical frameworks and making them more evidence based (Wacker, 1998). The real life

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4problems that scientific theory is used to solve include the management or treatment of illnessesand developing new and improved technologies to solve problems with efficiency.Various concepts are related to theory and its application in research processes. Theseconcepts include model, paradigm, concept and hypothesis. Even though these concepts arerelated to theory, they can be distinguished from both philosophical and scientific theories (Stam,2010). A model refers to the tool that is applied in the process of constructing a theory. A modelis often presented graphically or in a written format, and it is used to represent the components ofa theory or its entirety. Models are not used to explain the components of a theory. Instead, theyact as a method or approach through which researchers can explore a theory (Colquitt & Zapata-Phelan, 2007). Models are effectively used to illustrate a theory and its constituent components.Examples of models that are used to explore theories include molecular models and structuralmodels (Gelso, 2006).A paradigm is a group or framework of worldviews or beliefs, which researchers use todefine the boundaries, methods and values upon which their research processes are based (Udo-Akang, 2012). The approach through which a research topic is tackled is therefore part of theresearch paradigm. Researchers use paradigms to distinguish between what is important andwarrants scientific inquiry from what is not important (Stam, 2010). In addition, paradigms allowresearchers to determine and explain what they can possibly achieve during the research andwhat is impossible. In this sense, paradigms are the divergent views of a theory which arenecessary to direct the research towards the end objective. (Colquitt & Zapata-Phelan, 2007).

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5A concept is a unit of a theory. It acts as a building block upon which the postulates of atheory are constructed. This means that concepts are used to come up with a theory or atheoretical framework (Stam, 2010). The manner in which researchers interpret, explain anddescribe a theory is based on its concepts. Theoretical concepts can also be viewed as the itemswithin a research topic or concerns that are being investigated (Harlow, 2009). Researchers oftencompare a wide range of items in line with how they relate and how they affect each other. Theseitems are described as the main concepts of the research (Zahra, & Newey, 2009). Concept istherefore a method that researchers use to describe a theory or theoretical work. Education is anexample of a concept that is used to describe the learning experiences of an individual.A hypothesis is an important element of a research process that describes the educatedprediction or informed guess of the way the research subject is to be tested statistically .Researchers come up with hypotheses on the basis of their prior knowledge, experiences orobservations (Wacker, 1998). A hypothesis differs from a theory because it is not yet proven orsubstantiated. Research hypotheses must be testable in order to become a theory. This is differentfrom a theory which does not need to be tested in order to be applicable in understanding aphenomenon (Corley & Gioia, 2011). One or more hypotheses can be presented by researcherswith a view of using scientific evidence to prove or substantiate them. This implies that ahypothesis is one of the components of a scientific theory (Stam, 2010).From a review of the views of different scholars, it becomes apparent that there aredifferent perspectives of what constitutes a scientific theory. For instance, one view of a theory isthat it is made of different constructs. There are a wide range of constructs that make up a theory

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6(Jeanjean & Ramirez, 2009). They include its delimitation, level of clarity, comprehensiveness,testability, heuristic value, descriptive ability, integration and explanatory ability. Research isused to refine a research and to achieve an understanding of its constituent constructs. This viewof a theory is different from the views that describe a theory as a system of rules or a set oforganized knowledge (Gelso, 2006).The three main approaches of research to theory like realism, instrumentalism andreductionism are too be understood clearly if theory has to be applied in research.While the viewof realism is thatentities live and exist independently and beyond the scope of beingperceived as they are real .(Jeanjean & Ramirez, 2009). This means that people should view theworld on the basis of what research findings suggest and not their own subjective perceptions.This view of theory links theoretical frameworks with the importance of research processes inachieving an objective understanding of the world (Stam, 2010). The instrumentalism view oftheory provides that theory acts as instruments through which people can understand the world.Instrumentalism further speaks of whether the theory is effective in explaining why a particularphenomena is used and how predicable it is . The reductionism view of theory indicates that theability of an individual to learn about complex systems is based on an understanding of its unitsor constituent parts (Wacker, 1998).Part 2Different scholarly perspectives and views on research theory reveal the significantrelationship that exists between research and theory. For instance, theory is viewed as that whichcovers specific laws, brings about some form of enlightenment and is applicable in narrating or

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7explaining phenomena (Ellis & Levy, 2008). The role of research findings in bringing aboutenlightenment or informing people about phenomena that was previously not understooddemonstrates how research and theory are interrelated (Harlow, 2009). Both theory and researchprocesses are used to educate people on methods, strategies and approaches through which theycan mitigate or solve problems within the society (Leedy & Ormond, 2005). Because theory is aset of knowledge or rules, it is used to define the procedures and standards that would beapplicable in implementing the most effective solutions to a problem (Ellis & Levy, 2008).Research and theory have a special relationship. On one hand, theory is used to explain orto predict phenomena. On the other hand, research is used to gather, analyze and interpret dataand information in order to improve the understanding of a phenomenon (Harlow, 2009). Thismeans that both theory and research are important in enhancing people’s understanding of theworld or society. New knowledge, which can be identified and proven, must be produced by acredible research. It is on the basis of this new knowledge that more understanding ofphenomena is achieved (Ellis & Levy, 2008). Therefore, both research findings and theoreticalperspectives can be used at the same time to satisfy the needs of achieving more understandingof happenings.Research and theory have a symbiotic relationship, which makes them interdependent(Ng & Hase, 2008). This is depicted by the fact that researchers rely on theory to interpret andexplain their findings and theory is proven through a research process (Harlow, 2009). Thecredibility and reliability of research findings and inferences are based on the ability of aresearcher to test and prove theoretical ideas and postulates. Research process focuses on

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8contributing or building upon the existing knowledge and theory (Ellis & Levy, 2008). This isachieved by adding new facts, which are important in expanding theory.Researchers define the problem that their research findings aim at achieving beforeengaging in the actual research process (Weick, 1995). During the process of defining theresearch problem, the relationship between research and theory becomes apparent. This isbecause the research problem is related with the need to fill gaps in existing theory or providingmore understanding on theoretical perspectives on a phenomenon (Gelso, 2006). This means thattheory plays an important role in advancing research or scientific inquiry. Research processesthat aim at verifying theory also reveal the relationship that exists between theory and research.Research process can also be used to refute or to explore a theory (Ellis & Levy, 2008).Qualitative and quantitative research are the two main methods that researcher use inconducting scientific inquiry. In qualitative research, researchers seek to achieve in-depthunderstanding and interpretation of phenomena that is associated with human interaction or thesocialization process (Harlow, 2009). The kind of data that is gathered and analyzed duringqualitative research is non-statistical. Therefore, qualitative research entails investigation andunderstanding of the complex issues within the society, such as the perceptions, views andbeliefs of members of the community (Ellis & Levy, 2008). On the other hand, quantitativeresearch entails scientific inquiry that employs statistical and mathematical approaches andtechniques to gather, analyze and interpret quantifiable data (Lynham, 2002). These two methodsof the research process are important in the process of developing theories.

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9Quantitative method of research inquiry contributes to the development of theory becauseit provides researchers with a measurable and specified approach of collecting and analyzing thegathered data (Weick, 1995). Through this method, access to statistical or mathematical data isfacilitated. This data is then used to create a theory or refine an existing theory (Ellis & Levy,2008). Qualitative research method plays an important role in the process of developing a theorybecause it provides researchers with a way or means of measuring observations, documentingthem and interpreting their meaning (Harlow, 2009). Since theories emanate from theobservations of scholars or researchers, the role of qualitative research method in the developingtheories becomes apparent.Theories on the management of organizations are commonly based on qualitativeresearch findings, inferences and recommendations (Ng & Hase, 2008). Through qualitativeresearch methods, researchers are able to gather and interpret data on human behavior and thefactors that influence this behavior. This data is used to develop theories on the styles andapproaches of managing people, which are based on understanding of their behavioral attributes(Ellis & Levy, 2008). The complexities that characterize human interactions within the societyare also understood best through qualitative research. Therefore, theories, such as those oncriminal behavior are developed through the application of qualitative research methods (Leedy& Ormond, 2005).Through qualitative research methods, researchers are able to achieve in-depth thoughtsand description of various phenomena (Harlow, 2009). These thoughts are then used to formulatetheories. In addition, qualitative research allows researchers to probe deeper into an issue during

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10the data collection process, which is used to develop theories that describe social issues that aredeviant of the norm (Ellis & Levy, 2008). the research process, both qualitative and quantitative,also plays a critical role in testing theories or shading more light on the concepts or componentsof existing theories (Lynham, 2002).Examples of constructs that can be used to illustrate the importance of research in theformulation of theories include causal relationships, predictive model development,developmental studies for product development and efficacy evaluation (Ng & Hase, 2008).Research is used to describe causal effect relationships, which are important in development oftheories on the consequences of specific actions. Predictive models are developed throughresearch observations or findings (Ellis & Levy, 2008). These models are then used to developtheories. Therefore, the important role of research in the creation, formulation and validation oftheory should not be taken for granted. However, it is important to note that the need to refute atheory does not necessarily have to be supported by research. In some cases, researchers use theirresearch findings to draft proposals for the refinement of an existing theory (Harlow, 2009).Part 3Reductionism is one of the main views on research theory. This view of theory maintainsthat the understanding of complex systems should be based on an understanding of its units orconstituent parts (Gershenson, 2013). I would use reductionism to conduct my study on the topic“The Impact of Privatization on the Quality of Healthcare in Prisons”. I will utilize reductionismto understand the constituent parts or components of health care quality, such as responsivenessto the needs of patients, patient centeredness, and evidence based care, efficiency and safety in

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11line to how the privatization of health care services within correctional facilities affects them(Ahalt, Trestman, Rich, Greifinger & Williams, 2013). Reductionism has three main parts. Theseare ontological reductionism, theory reductionism and methodological reductionism (Theurer,2013).Ontological reductionism is a view of research theory that proposes that specific partsform a whole (Goldstein, 2012). On the basis of this view of research theory, I will identify thespecific parts of the health care quality that define the holistic quality of care that private healthcare providers give to patients within correctional facilities. After identifying these parts, I willcollect data related to each of the aspects of quality and relate it with how it is impacted by theprivatization of health care services within correctional facilities.I will use qualitative method to gather data on the views and perceptions of inmates onthe responsiveness of private health care providers to their health care needs. I will then analyzethe gathered data with a goal of proving or refuting theoretical views on privatization and thequality of health care services within correctional facilities. I will do the same for the otheraspects or indicators of health care quality. In doing this I will also focus on the development orcreation of a theory that explains the decreasing quality of care within correctional facilities(Penrod, Loeb & Smith, 2014). I will achieve this by determining whether the decreasing qualityof health care is related to privatization of health care services within prisons or other factors thataffect health, such as availability of resources and overcrowding (Stern, Greifinger & Mellow,2010).

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12Methodological reductionism provides that the use of research inquiry to explainphenomena should focus on the smaller entities of these phenomena (Pattaro, 2008). This viewof research theory is therefore effective in my research because it will enable me to determine theinstitutional factors that led to the transfer of health care services within prisons from publichealth care organizations to private contractors and the associated implications on the quality ofhealth care services that are given to patients within federal and state correctional facilities(Ahalt, Trestman, Rich, Greifinger & Williams, 2013). For instance, I will be able to gather andinterpret data on the smaller entities or factors that are associated with privatization, such as thecontrol of health care by private contractors and allocation of resources, including medicalequipment and private health care providers. I will then use this analysis to formulate a theorythat links privatization of health care systems in prisons and the outcomes of health care servicedelivery.Reductionism can be applied to meanings, explanations, phenomena, theories and objects(Mackinnon, 2008). This makes it suitable for my research because of the fact that I will analyzeseveral interrelated variables, such as the quality of health care in prisons, health care outcomes,privatization, cost containment and allocation of resources (Rieder, Casillas, Mary, Secretan,Gaspoz & Wolff, 2013). In addition to the theoretical aspects of health care and the delivery ofhigh quality services, I will employ reductionism as the most appropriate theoretical view inunderstanding objects, such health care equipment and environment, and relate them toprivatization and the safety of health care services that are provided to inmates by private healthcare professionals.

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13Theory reductionism suggests that when researchers use their findings to formulate a newtheory, this theory does not absorb or replace and older theory (Gershenson, 2013). Instead, thenew theory reduces the older theory into more basic concepts and terms. Through theoryreductionism I will be able to explore into more specific and basic aspects of the existing theoryon privatization and the quality of health care within correctional facilities. For instance, I willbreak the general theory on quality and private health care systems in prisons into the specificcomponents or indicators of the quality of health care (Stern, Greifinger & Mellow, 2010). It isthrough this that my research will indicate how the specific aspects of health care quality, such aspatient centeredness, safety, efficiency and responsiveness to the needs of inmate patients areaffected by the privatization of correctional health care systems.Reductionism will also allow me to achieve an in-depth understanding of the role ofprivatization of correctional health care systems on the preservation of the ethics of health care.This is attributed to the fact the preservation of the ethical framework of health care is one of themany components of care that defines the quality of services that patients receive. The ethics ofhealth care provide that the needs of patients are met through the delivery of safe health careservices, which are aimed at minimizing harm and promoting the physiological andpsychological wellbeing of patients (Ahalt, Trestman, Rich, Greifinger & Williams, 2013).Through reductionism, I will be able to gather comprehensive data on all aspects of health carequality and determine the indicators of health care quality within correctional facilities that isaffected most through privatization.

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14Even though reductionism would contribute significantly, there are two areas ofcontroversy about this theory that I will have to put in mind in order to ensure that I use itappropriately in order to achieve the objectives of my study. First, it is notable that not allphenomena can be reduced to their constituent parts. For this reason, this theory may not beeffective in explaining complex systems, such as those that have feedback loops (Kauffman,2009). Social systems are highly complex and therefore the role of reductionism inunderstanding its component parts may be limited. Prisons are examples of complex socialsystems. This means that the extent to which I will apply reductionism to understand the specificcomponents of the prisons social system, such as interaction between private health careproviders and prisoners and social factors that impact health care incomes within prisons, may belimited (Davies, Charles & Handscomb, 2013).There is also controversy on reductionism that is related to criticisms that it fragmentsknowledge. The fact that reductionism provides for the isolation of a system or phenomenon intoits small parts results in concerns that knowledge on the components of a system may notappropriate in understanding the functioning of the system as a whole (Lausen, 2014). Theindicators of health care quality and the factors associated with the privatization of health careservices within correctional facilities are the components of my study, which would befragmented as a result of applying the reductionism theoretical view (Rieder, Casillas, Mary,Secretan, Gaspoz & Wolff, 2013). However, I will limit this fragmentation by analyzing allresearch findings in line with two main variables: privatization correctional health care systems

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15and the quality of health care. This will allow me to ensure that the research findings are credibleand reliable to inform the decisions of policy makers.Practical ApplicationPart 1Theory is described as a systematic process of organizing knowledge. The organizedknowledge should be applicable in providing solutions to problems in real world or in practice(Gilbert, 2010). Various professional disciplines or fields employ different theories in solvingproblems that are unique to the field of practice. A theory is also described as a guideline uponwhich a problem is formulated or understood. It therefore indicates the most effective approachesor methods that can be used to overcome a problem (Aertsen, Jaspaert & Van Gorp, 2013). Theoutcomes of a solution are effectively measured through the use of relevant theoreticalperspectives or frameworks. When a theory is used to determine or identify a problem and tomeasure the solution or methods of solving the problem, then it is said that theory has beenapplied in practice (Yardley, Teunissen, & Dornan, 2012).

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