Psychology - Psychology Learning | Psychology

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Study GuidePsychology – Psychology: Learning1.Classical Conditioning1.1What Is Classical Conditioning?Classical conditioning(also calledPavlovian conditioning) is a basic form of learning that happensthroughreflexes. It was first studied byIvan Pavlov.Pavlov noticed something interesting while working with dogs. His dogs begansalivating beforefood was actually placed in their mouths. They reacted simply to signals that usually came beforefood, such as footsteps or sounds.This observation led Pavlov to discover thata neutral stimulus, like a buzzer or a light, could belinked to anatural reflexif the correct sequence of events was used.1.2Key Elements of Classical ConditioningClassical conditioning depends onfour main components.Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)•A stimulus thatnaturally and automaticallycauses a response•No learning is requiredExamples:•Food•A puff of air blown into the eyeUnconditioned Response (UCR)•Anatural, unlearned reactionto the UCS•Also called areflex

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Study GuideExamples:•Salivation in response to food•Eye blink in response to a puff of airConditioned Stimulus (CS)•A stimulus that isinitially neutral•Doesnotcause the reflex at first•Becomes meaningful through learningExample:•The sound of a buzzerConditioned Response (CR)•Alearned response•The same reaction as the UCR•Now occurs in response to the CS aloneExample:•Eye blink caused by the buzzerThe Four-Step Process of Classical ConditioningThe process using theeye-blink example.Step 1: Present the CSThebuzzer (CS)is presented several times.At first, it doesnotcause an eye blink.CS (buzzer) → UCS (air puff) → UCR (eye blink) → CR (eye blink)(CS → UCS → UCR → CR sequence showing buzzer followed by air puff)

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Study GuideStep 2: Pair CS with UCSEach time the buzzer sounds, it is followedvery closelyby apuff of air (UCS).Step 3: UCS Produces the UCRThe puff of air naturally causes aneye blink (UCR).Step 4: CS Produces the CRAfter many pairings:•Thebuzzer is presented alone•If the subject blinks, the blink is now aconditioned response (CR)CS (buzzer) → CR (eye blink)(CS → CR sequence showing buzzer alone causing eye blink)At this point,learning (conditioning) has occurred.Higher-Order ConditioningClassical conditioning can go one step further. This is calledhigher-order conditioning, wherenewlearning builds on previous learning.How It Works•Anew stimulusis paired with an already learned CS•The new stimulus eventually produces the response on its ownExample:•Alightis always turned on before thebuzzer•The buzzer already causes an eye blink•Eventually, thelight alonecauses the blinkHere:•The buzzer now acts like aUCS•The light becomes anew CS

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Study GuideCS (light) → UCS (buzzer) → UCR (eye blink) → CR (eye blink)(Higher-order sequence: light → buzzer → air puff → blink)Result of Higher-Order ConditioningAfter learning is complete:•Thelight aloneproduces an eye blinkCS (light) → CR (eye blink)Important Terms in Classical ConditioningAcquisition•Thelearning phase•Occurs when the CS and UCS are paired•Learning happens faster when the time gap between CS and UCS is shortExtinction•The process ofunlearning•Happens when the CS is presented repeatedlywithout the UCS•The conditioned response gradually disappearsSpontaneous Recovery•After extinction, the CR mayreappear briefly•This return is temporary•The response will fade again unless the UCS is reintroduced

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Study GuideKey Points to Remember•Classical conditioning is learning byassociation•UCS → UCR is natural and unlearned•CS → CR is learned•Learning can extend through higher-order conditioning•Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery describe different stages of conditioning2.Operant Conditioning2.1What Is Operant Conditioning?Operant conditioningis a type of learning in which behavior is shaped by itsconsequences.It is calledoperantconditioning because the learneroperates on the environment—that is, thelearner does something and experiences the result.An early explanation of this kind of learning was given byEdward Thorndike, who called itinstrumental learning. He used this term because the behavior isinstrumentalin getting a reward.Bothoperant conditioningandclassical conditioningare sometimes calledS–R learning,because astimulus (S)becomes linked to aresponse (R).2.2The Law of EffectThorndike proposed thelaw of effect, which explains how operant conditioning works.According to this law:•Behaviors followed by asatisfying outcomeare more likely to be repeated•Behaviors followed by anunpleasant outcomeare less likely to occur againThis idea became the foundation of operant conditioning.

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Study Guide2.3The Operant BoxA special device called anoperant box(orSkinner box) was developed byB. F. Skinnerto studyoperant conditioning.In this box:•An animal (often a rat or pigeon) can perform a behavior, such as pressing a bar•The behavior leads to a consequence, such as receiving foodOperant conditioning doesnot requirean unconditioned stimulus (UCS) or conditioned stimulus(CS), although signals can be used along with reinforcement and shaping.2.4ShapingIn operant conditioning, the learner mustfirst perform a behaviorbefore it can be rewarded.Shapingis the process ofrewarding small stepsthat gradually lead to the desired behavior.Example: Teaching a Rat to Press a BarThe rat is rewarded step by step:1.Going near the bar2.Touching the bar3.Pressing the barAt first, each step is rewarded. Eventually,only the final behavior(pressing the bar) is rewarded.With humans, shaping can sometimes be done usingverbal instructions.2.5ReinforcementReinforcementis anything thatincreases the likelihoodthat a behavior will occur again.The event that follows the behavior is called areinforcer.There aretwo main types of reinforcement.

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Study Guide2.6Positive ReinforcementPositive reinforcementoccurs when apleasant or desirable stimulusis added after a behavior,making that behavior more likely.Examples:•A student gets a better grade after rewriting a paper•A rat presses a bar and receives food•Praise, money, food, or privileges can all be positive reinforcersAnimals are often slightly deprived of food or water so that these rewards are more effective.2.7Negative ReinforcementNegative reinforcementincreases behavior byremoving or avoiding something unpleasant.The goal is not punishment, butescape or avoidance.Examples:•A rat learns to move to the right in a maze to avoid an electric shock•A child cleans up toys to avoid being punished•A loud noise stops when a button is pressedNegative reinforcement increases behavior, even though something unpleasant is involved.2.8PunishmentPunishmentis different from negative reinforcement.•Punishment decreasesthe likelihood of a behavior•The unpleasant stimulus isexperienced, not avoidedExample:•A student receives an F for not studyingInterestingly, punishment can later act as anegative reinforcer.The student may study more in the future toavoid receiving another F.

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Study Guide2.9Schedules of ReinforcementReinforcement does not always happen after every response.Continuous Reinforcement•Every correct response is reinforced•Leads to fast learning•But behavior is easily extinguished2.10Intermittent Reinforcement•Only some responses are reinforced•Learning is slower•Behavior ismore resistant to extinctionThis resistance is called thepartial reinforcement effect.2.11Types of Reinforcement SchedulesFixed-Ratio Schedule•Reinforcement after aset number of responses•Leads to fast learning and steady respondingVariable-Ratio Schedule•Reinforcement after achanging number of responses•Produces thehighest rate of responding•Very resistant to extinction•Example: gambling or slot machines

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Study GuideFixed-Interval Schedule•Reinforcement after afixed amount of time•Responses increase as the reward time approaches•Few responses right after reinforcementVariable-Interval Schedule•Reinforcement aftervarying time intervals•Produces steady but slower respondingInteresting note:Most jobs pay on afixed-interval schedule. Productivity might increase if rewards were given morefrequently, such as bonuses (fixed-ratio).2.12Primary and Secondary ReinforcersPrimary Reinforcers•Naturally rewarding or punishing•Do not require learningExamples:•Food•Water•Painful electric shockSecondary Reinforcers•Originally neutral•Gain value through learningExamples:•Grades (A or F)•Money•Praise or symbols of success

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