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Psychology - Psychology Motivation

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Study GuidePsychology–Psychology: Motivation1.Sexual Motivation1.1Regulation of Sexual ResponsesSexual motivation, like hunger and thirst, is influenced bybiological processes in the brain andbody.Certain areas of the brain—especially parts of thehypothalamus(such as the medial preoptic areaand the ventromedial hypothalamus, VMH)—play a key role in regulating sexual motivation andbehavior. Other brain regions, including thelimbic system, are also involved.Sexual behavior is strongly affected bysex hormones:•Testosteroneis the primary hormone involved in males•Estrogensare the primary hormones involved in femalesThese hormones are produced by thegonads(testes and ovaries). Hormone production in thegonads is controlled by hormones released from thepituitary gland.Sexual behavior is complex and can be influenced by many factors, especially during development.These factors may include:•exposure to sex hormones•use of drugs that affect hormone production•brain development and functioning1.2The Sexual Response CycleResearchersWilliam MastersandVirginia Johnsondescribed thesexual response cycle, whichoccurs in both males and females. It consists offour phases.1. Excitement•Initial sexual arousal•Genital areas become stimulated

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Study Guide2. Plateau•Sexual excitement continues and intensifies•Breathing rate, pulse, and blood pressure increase3. Orgasm•Rapid muscle contractions in the genital area•In males, semen is released•Both males and females experience intense pleasure4. Resolution•The body gradually returns to an unaroused state•Sexual arousal decreases1.3Sexual DysfunctionSome individuals experience problems during one or more stages of the sexual response cycle.These difficulties are known assexual dysfunctionsand are often addressed by psychologists andother health professionals.Examples include:•Premature ejaculationin males•Impotence(difficulty becoming physically aroused) in males•Inability to experience orgasmin females•Low sexual desirein femalesSuch difficulties can have biological, psychological, or social causes.Sexual OrientationSexual orientationrefers to the direction of a person’s sexual or romantic attraction.•Heterosexual: attraction to the opposite gender•Homosexual: attraction to the same gender (gay males and lesbian females)•Bisexual: attraction to both genders

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Study GuideDifferences in sexual orientation exist inall cultures.Most psychologists today agree that:•sexual orientation isnot a choice•it isnot something people can deliberately change•individuals areborn with their orientationA 1996 survey reported that:•3.5% of men•2.1% of womenreported having had a homosexual experience in the previous 12 months.Importantly:•sexual orientation isnot linked to mental illness•it isnot associated with sexual crimes, such as child molestationHomosexuality was officially removed as a mental disorder by theAmerican PsychiatricAssociationin1973.Key Points to Remember•Sexual motivation is regulated by the brain and hormones•The hypothalamus and limbic system play major roles•The sexual response cycle has four stages•Sexual dysfunctions can affect any stage of the cycle•Sexual orientation is a natural variation of human behavior

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Study Guide2.Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB)2.1Discovery of Brain Reward AreasIn1954, psychologistsJames OldsandPeter Milnermade an important discovery while studyingrats.They found that when an electrode was implanted incertain areas of a rat’s brain, the rat wouldrepeatedlypress a barto receive a small burst of electrical stimulation. This behavior occurred evenwithout food or water rewards.This led researchers to believe they had discovered abrain reward system.2.2Electrical Stimulation as a ReinforcerElectrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) acted as apowerful reinforcer.•Rats pressed the barcontinuously for 15 to 20 hours•They continued until they becamecompletely exhausted•During this time, rats:oignored food and wateroneglected other natural behaviorsomother rats even ignored their pupsThis showed that the electrical stimulation wasextremely motivating, sometimes more motivatingthan basic survival needs.2.3Positive and Negative Brain StimulationIt was already known that:•stimulating certain brain areas could trigger behaviors such aseating, drinking, sexualbehavior, or aggression•damaging (lesioning) those areas could reduce or eliminate these behaviors

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Study GuideLater research showed that:•positive ESB sitescaused animals to seek stimulation•negative ESB sitescaused animals to avoid stimulationMany of these sites were found to be concentrated in thelimbic system, a group of brain structuresinvolved in motivation and emotion.Turning Off StimulationIn1955, psychologistJosé Delgadodemonstrated another important finding.•Rats learned to press a bar toturn off electrical stimulationto thehippocampus•The hippocampus isnot involved in pain transmission•This showed that animals could also learn behaviors tostop unpleasant brain stimulationElectrical Stimulation in HumansSome humans have had electrodes implanted in their brains to help reduce symptoms ofParkinson’sdisease.These individuals reported that the stimulation felt:•mildly pleasurable•satisfying•calmingThis suggests that similar reward-related brain systems exist in humans.Neurotransmitters and Modern ResearchResearch has shown that ESB causes the release of neurotransmitters such as:•dopamine•norepinephrineBecause of this, ESB helped scientists better understand the brain’sreward and motivationsystems.

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Study GuideHowever, modern research focuses more on:•usingdrugsto regulate neurotransmitter levels•rather than directly stimulating the brain with electrodesKey Points to Remember•ESB can strongly reinforce behavior•Rats will work intensely for rewarding brain stimulation•Reward and avoidance sites are often found in the limbic system•ESB affects dopamine and norepinephrine release•Modern treatment prefers drug-based methods over ESB3.Behavioral Perspective3.1Understanding Motivation from a Behavioral ViewThebehavioral perspectiveexplains motivation by focusing on:•drives(both learned and unlearned)•incentives(external rewards)According to this approach, behavior is motivated either byinternal needs that push usor byexternal rewards that pull us.Drive TheoryWhat Is Drive Theory?Drive theoryexplains motivation in terms of biological needs and the body’s attempt to maintainhomeostasis, or astable internal condition.All living organisms have basic physiological needs, such as:

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Study Guide•food•water•sleepWhen these needs are met, the body stays in balance.Primary (Unlearned) DrivesWhen homeostasis is disrupted, the body experiencestension or arousal, called aprimary(unlearned) drive.Examples:•hunger•thirst•fatigueIf the body lacks food, ahunger drivedevelops. Eating food reduces this drive and helps restorebalance. This process is calleddrive reduction.Drives motivate behavior because organisms arepushed to reduce discomfortand return tohomeostasis.Learning theoristClark Hulldeveloped mathematical formulas to explain howdrive strength andlearningwork together to influence behavior.Secondary (Learned) DrivesNot all drives are biological. Some drives arelearned, orsecondary drives.A common example isfear (or anxiety), which can be learned through:•classical conditioning•operant conditioningNeal Miller’s ExperimentPsychologistNeal Millerdemonstrated learned drives in an operant conditioning experiment.
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Document Details

University
Texas A&M University
Course
Psychology
Subject
Psychology

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