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Lecture Notes for Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology, 8th Edition

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Lecture Notes for Abnormal Child and Adolescent Psychology, 8th Edition summarizes important topics for quick revision.

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    Instructor’s Resource Manual to accompany Child and Adolescent Psychology 8 th Edition Rita Wicks - Nelson and Allen C. Israel Alan Swinkels St. Edward’s University

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    Contents Chapter 1 ........ Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 1 Chapter 2 ........ The Developmental Psychopathology Perspective ................................ ......... 9 Chapter 3 ........ Biological and Environmental Contexts of Psychopathology ...................... 16 Chapter 4 ........ Research: Its Role and Methods ................................ ................................ ... 26 Chapter 5 ........ Classification, Assessment, and Intervention ................................ ............... 34 Chapter 6 ........ Anxiety Disorders ................................ ................................ ......................... 43 Chapter 7 ........ Mood Disorders ................................ ................................ ............................ 53 Chapter 8 ........ Conduct Problems ................................ ................................ ......................... 62 Chapter 9 ........ Attention - Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder ................................ ..................... 71 Chapter 10 ...... Language and Learning Disabilities ................................ ............................. 79 Chapter 11 ...... Intellectual Disability ................................ ................................ .................... 86 Chapter 12 ...... Autism Spectrum Disorder and Schizophrenia ................................ ............. 92 Chapter 13 ...... Disorders of Basic Physical Functions ................................ ....................... 101 Chapter 14 ...... Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Conditions ................................ 111 Chapter 15 ...... Evolving Concerns for Youth ................................ ................................ ..... 118

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    1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER SUMMARY Child and adolescent psychological problems and disorders have interested mental health professionals for some time; however, it is only in recent years that this interest has reached a larger audience. What is abnormal child or adolescent behavior? How do we distinguish between normal or abnormal behavior? How can we be certain that a behavior is not part of normal development? There are as many variations in children’s behavior as there are names for the behavior. Regardless of the label, there is no simple or exact way to define disordered behavior. All groups have norms for what is considered appropriate behavior, and those norms can sometimes differ across cultural groups or various ethnicities. Whether implicit or explicit, the norms tell us how to behave and help us distinguish the fine line between normal and abnormal. Behavior is considered abnormal if a child or adolescent consistently violates some of these rules and the behavior interferes with everyday functioning and basic developmental tasks. Attitudes about what is normal vary over time and situations, or across the people observing the behavior. (The definition of child and adolescent problem behavior is made by others — usually a parent or guardian, teacher, or family physician.) Not surprisingly, disagreements can exist among adults as to whether a child has a problem. The number of children and adolescents with a psychological disorder is staggering, and the challenges they face are significant. An estimated 15 - 20 percent of all four - to eighteen - year - olds experience psychological disorders. Contrary to what many believe, many psychological disorders do not go away with time. Rather, a large proportion of youth will continue to face difficulties into adulthood. The pain and suffering that children and adolescents experience extends to families, schools, communities, and the broader society, as reflected in the costs of medical, psychological, and educational services for children and their families. It also has been suggested that changing social conditions may increase the risk of disorders. Among children and adolescents, disordered behavior must be considered within a developmental framework. What may be acceptable behavior at one developmental stage can become problem behavior at a later stage of development. Certain behaviors (such as autism) appear during the early years of development, whereas other conditions (such as schizophrenia) develop during the teenage years. Gender differences are found in the rates and expression of different psychological disorders, with boys generally exhibiting higher rates than girls. Methodological issues, such as biased clinical samples, and differences in expression of the disorder may account in part for some of the reported results. Historically, interest in psychopathology focused primarily on adults. The foundations for classifying and understanding problem behaviors among children were established from several sources, such as efforts by Kraepelin to identify and classify mental illness, the introduction of psychoanalytic theory, techniques of behaviorism and social learning, and the influence of the mental hygiene movement. The current study and practice of child and adolescent psychopathology emphasizes a multidisciplinary perspective and scientifically rigorous approach. Children are seen as having an active role in their environment, and behavior results from a series of transactions involving timing, situation, and characteristics of the individual. More than one professional is often involved in clinical activities with a young person. Professional contact with youth typically involves some communication with families,

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    2 usually with one or more parents. The importance of the family is apparent in cases in which treatment is discontinued prior to successful completion. The comparative immaturity, inexperience, and vulnerability of children and adolescents require special considerations. Efforts by mental health professionals toward establishing a therapeutic alliance with clients may increase the chance of a successful outcome. CONTENT OUTLINE INTRODUCTION DEFINING AND IDENTIFYING ABNORMALITY Atypical and Harmful Behavior Developmental Standards Culture and Ethnicity Other Standards: Gender and Situations The Role of Others Changing Views of Abnormality HOW COMMON ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS? HOW ARE DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL AND DISORDER RELATED? HOW ARE GENDER AND DISORDER RELATED? Methodological Issues, True Differences HISTORICAL INFLUENCES Progress in the 19th Century Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory Mental Hygiene and Child Guidance Movements Scientific Study of Youth CURRENT STUDY AND PRACTICE Working with Youth and Their Families Interdisciplinary Efforts The Role of Parents Working with Young Clients OVERVIEW KEY TERMS

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    3 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss: ➢ How psychological disorders are defined and identified ➢ The prevalence of psychological disorders ➢ The relationship between developmental level and psychological disorders ➢ The relationship between gender and psychological disorders ➢ Historical influences on understanding psychological disorders ➢ The current study and practice of abnormal child and adolescent psychology KEY TERMS developmental norms (p. 3) culture, cultural norms (p. 3) ethnicity (p. 4) race (p. 4) gender norms (p. 5) situational norms (p. 5) secular trends (p. 6) demonology (p. 10) somatogenesis (p. 10) syndromes (p. 1 1 ) psychoanalytic theory (p. 11) psychogenesis (p. 11) behaviorism (p. 13) social learning perspective (p. 14) cognitive - behavioral perspective (p. 14) mental hygiene movement (p. 14) child guidance movement (p. 14) therapeutic alliance (p. 17) informed consent (p. 17)

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    4 LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS 1. Sociologist W.I. Thomas is known for his classic “definition of the situation.” In Thomas’s words, “If a person defines a situation as real, it will be real in its consequences for that individual.” This concept is an excellent stepping - off place for a general discussion of the distinction between normality and abnormality, at least from a sociological point of view. Deviant behavior may be viewed from an absolute perspective (“Thou shalt not kill”), or from a relative perspective (“In wartime, killing is socially sanctioned under certain circumstances”). Discuss this absolute/relative distinction with the members of your class. Encourage them to offer other illustrations of Thomas’s notion of the definition of the situation and how it impacts perceptions of normality. 2. The article cited below is an excellent way to get students involved in class discussion early in the semester. It should also prompt students to think about the responsibilities of parents and caretakers who work with children who may have psychological disorders , the importance of getting good help as well as accurate diagnosis , the importance of awareness of mental disorders , and removing any shame or stigma from a diagnosis of disorder. Ask students to read the article below or paste this excerpt into a PowerPoint slide. Discuss the issue in class with responses from both sides. Legal Responsibility and Schizophrenia: A credible defense? In May of 1998, Kip Kinkel, age 15, shot and killed his parents, and the next day went to school and opened fire on fellow students (killing two and injuring twenty - five). Kip, diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, said he heard voices directing him to shoot his parents. After he killed his mother, the voices said, “Go to school and kill everybody. Look what you’ve already done.” The examining psychiatrist stated that he did not believe that there was any way to cure Kip’s disorder, but that it could be managed with medication: “I would not want to see Kip Kinkel out on the streets, ever, with this condition . . . without medicine and without an awful lot of structure and support services arranged for him.” (From PBS Frontline at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kinkel/ ). 3. Cultural, ethnic, and gender disparities in mental health provide a wealth of material for lecture topics. Although rates may vary, mental disorders do not discriminate; they affect all classes, racial and ethnic groups, and genders. However, there are many differences across social groups in the understanding, acceptance, availability of services, and treatment of mental health. How might these disparities affect the way people from different cultures, age ranges, classes, or genders view abnormal behavior? 4. Invite a guest speaker with expertise on any of the following topics to share her or his knowledge with your students: a. The Psychologist — Ask a psychologist from your university Counseling Center or someone in private practice to discuss her or his professional activities with your students. Ask your guest to address such areas as training, clients’ problems, referrals, methods used, and success rates. b. The Hospital — Invite an administrator or public relations person from an acute care hospital to discuss her or his facility and its therapeutic services. Ask the person to include such points as patient characteristics, major types of disorders, treatments, special programs, admissions

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    5 procedures and reasons for admission, release procedures, follow - up programs, and successes in the neuropsychiatric program. c. The Community Program — Ask a representative from a community program (city or neighborhood) to come to class and describe the program to your students. This person could represent a community mental health or mental retardation program, a work program for people with mental retardation, an alcohol abuse program, or a group home. STUDENT ACTIVITIES 1. Careers in mental health . Your students are probably interested in working with children at some point, and many of them might plan a career in the field. It is often difficult to differentiate the roles of the many mental health professionals who work with children. Many choices exist, depending on one’s interests, training, and aptitude. Ask students to search the Internet for different career choices. Some examples of careers are clinical, educational, counseling, or school psychologist; educational therapist; psychiatric social worker; counselor; and psychiatric nurse. A good starting point is to find the professional organization affiliated with the career (ex. psychologists -- www.apa.org ; family therapist -- American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy -- www.aamft.org ). 2. Stigma . Even with cultural changes and diagnostic progress, stigma continues to plague the field of mental health. A majority of disorders are underreported due to fear or embarrassment. Often parents or guardians feel they will be viewed as “bad parents” or have “poor parenting skills” if their child is diagnosed with a problem. Some even blame themselves for the onset of mental illness. In 1999 the White House Conference on Mental Health called for a national anti - stigma campaign. Ask students to read this summary (cited below) or find articles on current attitudes toward psychological disorders, especially among children and adolescents. Do they think the campaign was successful? Why or why not? If not, what specific ideas might they suggest (such as a media campaign) to change people’s opinions? What populations would they target? http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/First_Lady/html/generalspeeches/1999/19990607.html 3. What is normal? Presenting students with an actual case can be an excellent way to begin a class period and quickly get your students involved in the day’s topic. Divide students into groups of five to six. Have them read the case of Rachel (or, if you prefer, one of your own cases) and answer the questions that follow. RACHEL Rachel is a 14 - year - old with no prior history of psychological problems. She is dressed in shorts, a sleeveless tee and combat boots. She was brought in by her mother with complaints of “feeling bad.” She is irritable, sleeps poorly, eats little, and has lost 10 lbs. in the last few months. She appears disinterested in many of the activities she previously enjoyed, such as shopping with her mother. Instead, she lies around the house, communicates little with her family, and appears to have little energy or self - direction. What are your concerns, if any? Which of Rachel’s behaviors seem normal? Explain. What is contributing to Rachel’s overall pattern of behavior? What additional information would you like to have? Why?

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    6 4. As noted in the text, cultural and gender - based norms are impo rtant contributors to people’s perceptions of the normality or abnormality of behavior. Encourage you r students to think of ways in which cultural norms contribute to these perceptions. For example, there are many subcultural groups within society that would not think drinking a pint of whiskey and a six - pack of beer in one evening is deviant, particularly when all of their relatives, friends, and acquaintances are engaging in the same behavior. Then, have the class think about how gender norms affect what is regarded as normal or abnormal. Prior to the 1970s, for example, promiscuity was taken for granted among males (“sowing wild oats”), but the same behavior among females sent a stigmatized message about “loose” women who “slept around.” SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGS Books American Psychiatric Association. (2004). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM - IV - TR (Text Revision). American Psychiatric Association (4 th ed). Note that the DSM - V will eventually be published; more information can be found here: http://www.dsm5.org/Pages/Default.aspx Beers, C. (1908). A mind that found itself: An autobiography . University of Pittsburgh Press. Beers, C. (1923). The mental hygiene movement . Doubleday. Freud, S. (1946). The psychoanalytic treatment of children . Imago. Freud, S. (1965). Abstracts of the standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud. International Universities Press. House, A. E. (2002). DSM - IV diagnosis in the schools . New York, NY: Guilford Press . Karp, David A. (2001). The burden of sympathy: How families cope with mental illness . Oxford University Press. Rutter, M. & Smith, D.J. (1995). Psychosocial disorders in young people: Time trends and their causes. New York: Wiley. Research Articles Adkins, D. E. ; Daw, J. K. ; McClay, J. L. ; & van den Oord, Edwin J. C. G. (2012). The influence of five monoamine genes on trajectories of depressive symptoms across adolescence and young adulthood. Development and Psychopathology , Special issue: A Developmental Psychopathology Perspective on Emotional Availability Research, 24(1) , 267 - 285. Rollock, D., & Gordon, E. W. (2000). Racism and mental health into the 21st century: Perspectives and parameters. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 70(1) , 5 - 13. Rutter, M. , & Sroufe, A. (1999). Development and psychopathology: Concepts and challenges. Development and Psychopathology , 12 , 265 - 296. Stewart, S. M. ; Simmons, A. ; & Habibpour, E. (2012). Treatment of culturally diverse children and adolescents with depression. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology , 22(1) , 72 - 79.

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    7 Media Resources Fitting In or Standing Out? Conformity in Childhood (2007) Films for the Humanities and Sciences (60 min). As children begin school and other new experiences, what happens to the values, behavior, and expectations they have learned at home? Why do so many young people follow the crowd? And when does conformity become a bad thing? This program explores those questions, visiting a group of 25 seven - year - olds who are learning to cope with peer groups and situations. Inside the Teenage Brain (2001) Films for the Humanities and Sciences (60 min). There are many mysteries in life: What happens after we die? If a tree falls in the forest and no one is around, does it make a sound? Why do teenagers act in the inexplicable ways they do? This film tackles that last question and might set the stage for many of the discussions you’ll have throughout the semester. When the Bough Breaks (1995) Fifth Estate Series (72 min). A baby boy does not sleep through the night; a toddler stays up all night, too, and screams if her parents leave the house. Another little girl will not eat. Therapy sessions with the three young children are shown . Young Dr. Freud: 1. Struggling with the Demon (2002) PBS (57 min). This PBS documentary chronicles Freud’s life from his birth in 1856 and his concepts about identity, memory, childhood and sexuality, and psychoanalysis. Speaking Out : Video Interviews with People Who Struggle with Psychological Disorders Volume 3 - DVD 1 Mental Health and the Law Interview: Shannon - Intimate Violence and Self - Defense ( run time: 13:43 ) Day - In - The - Life - Shannon ( run time: 5:46 ) WEB LINKS American Psychological Association : www.apa.org American Psychological Society: www.psychologicalscience.org American Psychiatric Association : www.psychiatry.org/ Erik Erikson : www.learningplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson.htm Internet Mental Health: www.mentalhealth.com Mental Help Net: www. mentalhelp.net National Association of the Mentally Ill (NAMI): www.nami.org National Institutes of Mental Health : www . nimh.nih.gov

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    8 National Mental Health Association (NMHA) : www.nmha.org Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration: www.samhsa.gov Today in the History of Psychology : www.cwu.edu/~warren/today.html

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    9 CHAPTER 2 THE DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE CHAPTER SUMMARY Parents, teachers, or other caregivers who are concerned by a child’s unusual or disturbing behavior often seek help to better understand the behavior and determine its cause. Researchers and clinicians, too, have struggled with how a child’s behavior should be conceptualized and explained. Today, we recognize that to have more than a superficial understanding of a problem, it is necessary to have a set of organizing principles or framework within which to place our observations. Most clinicians begin with a theoretical formulation to guide them, although there are numerous factors potentially involved in psychopathology. Currently, the developmental psychopathology perspective offers a rigorous and influential approach to the study of behavioral disorders. This approach uses normal development to inform us about abnormal behavior. It emphasizes the role of developmental processes, context, situation, and the influences of multiple and interacting events in shaping healthy or maladaptive development. Rather than imposing a specific theoretical explanation, it offers a way of integrating various approaches or microparadigms within a developmental psychopathology framework. Even though children’s problems have a variety of causes, all have in common a failure to effectively master or complete a developmental milestone. Sometimes a sufficient cause will produce a disorder , but generally, it requires sufficient, necessary, and contributing forces in combination to produce the outcome. Along the developmental pathway of the growing child, a temporal relationship exists between the sequence and timing of particular behaviors. This relationship can be moderated by characteristics of the child or the environment. Age, gender, or sensitivity to the environment can have supportive or detrimental influences on the child as illustrated by the principles of equifinality and multifinality. Equifinality suggests that diverse paths or factors can be associated with the same outcome. In other words, children can travel different pathways or have different experiences yet develop the same behavioral problems. Multifinality suggests that, depending on other factors, children may have the same kind of experience yet end up with different problems or no difficulties at all. Factors such as risk, vulnerability, and resilience will also contribute to the appearance or absence of a disorder. Risk increases the chance of psychological difficulties or impairments. Developmental risk factors include constitutional, family, emotional, interpersonal, intellectual, and ecological elements, as well as unusual nonnormative stressful life events. In the presence of adverse conditions, some individuals will be resilient, whereas others will respond with maladaptive patterns that leave them vulnerable to the onset of psychopathology. Despite being at risk for the disorder, resilience, or the ability to avoid negative outcomes, increases the likelihood the child will not develop the disorder. Although resilience may include many factors, they can be summarized into three broad categories or protective factors : individual characteristics or personal attributes, family influences , and extra - familial support. A central tenet of behavioral disturbance is its stability over time. Although variation in stability is observed, it cannot be assumed that most children outgrow psychopathology.

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    10 There are times when a less - than - optimal developmental outcome occurs within the context of normal development. Four primary areas within normal development where problems might occur include early attachment, temperament style, emotional regulation, and social cognitive processing. Inherent in all four topics is the assumption that development is based on the interaction of both biological and experiential factors with the child. CONTENT OUTLINE INTRODUCTION PERSPECTIVES THEORIES, MODELS Theories Models THE DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE: AN OVERVIEW CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT SEARCHING FOR CAUSAL FACTORS AND PROCESSES PATHWAYS OF DEVELOPMENT Equifinality and Multifinality RISK, VULNERABILITY, AND RESILIENCE Risk and Vulnerability Resilience CONTINUITY OF DISORDER NORMAL DEVELOPMENT, PROBLEMATIC OUTCOMES Attachment Temperament Emotion and Its Regulation Understanding and Regulation Social Cognitive Processing OVERVIEW KEY TERMS

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    11 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss: ➢ Paradigms, theories, and models in the study of psychopathology ➢ The developmental psychopathology perspective ➢ The concept of development ➢ How causation is variously conceptualized ➢ Pathways of development ➢ Aspects of risk, vulnerability, and resilience ➢ Continuity and change in psychological disorders ➢ Examples of how normal and abnormal development go hand in hand KEY TERMS paradigm (p. 20) theory (p. 20) interactional models (p. 20) vulnerability - stress model (p. 20) transactional models (p. 21) systems models (p. 21) developmental psychopathology perspective (p. 21) development (p. 21) medical model (p. 22) direct effect, indirect effect (p. 22) mediator (p. 22) moderator (p. 22) necessary, sufficient, contributing causes (p. 22) equifinality (p. 24) multifinality (p.25) risk s (p. 25) vulnerability (p. 26) resilience (p. 27) developmental tasks (p. 27) heterotypic, homotypic continuity (p. 29) attachment (p. 30) secure, insecure, disorganized attachment (p. 30) temperament (p. 31) goodness - of - fit (p. 31) differential susceptibility hypothesis (p. 33)

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    12 emotion (p. 33) social cognitive processing (p. 34)

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    13 LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS 1. Chapter 2 begins with a review of perspectives, theories, and models. Even those students who are psychology majors will benefit from some additional discussion of these concepts. One potentially interesting strategy is to present the concepts of perspectives, theories, and models with the analogy of a filing cabinet. As research findings are accumulated, perspectives are developed. When a perspective is shared by investigators, it becomes a paradigm . New files are created in the filing cabinet. Related to the development of perspectives is theory construction . When new theories are created, relevant files are moved within that category. This mirrors the definition of a theory: a formal, integrated set of principles or propositions that explains phenomena . Models are representations or descriptions of the phenomenon under study. Models may be viewed as additional files in the filing cabinet, further helping to organize the researcher’s thinking surrounding a particular topic under investigation. 2. Who's Watching the Kids? Effects of Nonparental Child Care on Development . Discuss with your students the effects of daycare on infant attachment. One of the biggest changes in childcare during the past several decades has been in non - parental daycare. More children now receive early childhood care in this manner than in any other way. This dramatic change has led to research on the potential impact of daycare on children’s overall well - being. One area that received much attention was the potential negative impact on the infant - caregiver attachment. Extensive research has led most experts to conclude that daycare, in and of itself, does not affect attachment, but this research did indicate that certain factors might increase the insecure attachment risk among some children. Students may be directed to the following website, where they will find many interesting articles and commentaries on daycare: www.daycare.com . 3. Discuss the ethical dilemmas that would likely occur in the following situations: ➢ A mother finds that her unborn child has a chromosomal disorder, and therefore the child will not live a "normal" life. ➢ A young woman discovers that she is carrying genes that greatly increase her risk for breast cancer. Will her insurance company cancel her policy? Should she consider a mastectomy as a prevention measure even though her risk for developing the cancer is less than one hundred percent? ➢ In the future, through genetic analysis, the prediction of certain illnesses may be possible. Should this information be provided to prospective employers? Should the prerequisite of a genetic analysis be present in certain types of employment? Could individuals be assured that these genetic records would remain confidential? Could this lead to discrimination? ➢ If genetic research clearly demonstrates the genetic etiology of certain disorders, should individuals who carry these genetic defects (that could be passed on to children) be allowed to reproduce? ➢ Should individuals in our society be forced to undergo genetic testing? Under what conditions should it be allowed? Does this violate a person's right to privacy?

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    14 STUDENT ACTIVITIES 1. Should the courts or the parents make the ultimate decision for medical treatment of children? The case of Kate Wernecke (a 12 - year - old Texan who was taken from her parents and placed in foster care in order to receive radiation treatment for her Hodgkin's disease) addresses this question. How do you feel about the state overriding the parents in deciding the best course of treatment for a child? In this case, the child has a type of cancer that has a high rate of cure with the combinations of treatment that the doctors wished to pursue. 2. Attachment Lecture . Opportunities for the students to learn about attachment theory come from the links given below. You may want to discuss the topic in class in some detail or ask students to gather their own information. Below are links to some articles on attachment: This is a link to a very detailed description of the life and works of Mary Ainsworth. http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/g2602/0000/2602000016/print.jhtml This is a link providing a great description of the basic types of attachments. http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.htm This is an informative site with a discussion of infants and the emotion of anger. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/102/5/SE1/1268 3. Divide your students into small groups. Each group will be charged with developing a simple model for the concept of development (students are instructed to review the textbook’s discussion of development). Among the models that the groups might explore are interactional, transactional, and systems . SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGS Books Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). New York: Basic Books. Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D.J. (1995). Developmental psychopathology . New York: John Wiley. Fallon, A. E., & Brabender, V. M. (2012). A secure connection: The tethering of attachment and good - enough maternal care. In S. Akhtar, (Ed.), The mother and her child: Clinical aspects of attachment, separation, and loss . ( p. 15 - 43). Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson. Readings Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Bell, S.M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the behavior of one - year - olds in a strange situation . Child Development , 41 , 49 - 67. Bowlby, J. (1960). Grief and mourning in infancy and early childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child , 15 , 9 - 52.

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    15 Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1977). Temperamental individuality from childhood to adolescence. Journal of American Academy or Child Psychiatry , 16 , 218 - 226. Green, J., & Goldwyn, R. (2002). Attachment disorganization and psychopathology: New findings in attachment research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 3, 835 - 846. Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56 , 227 - 238. Media Resources 7 Up - 14 Up - 21 Up - 28 Up - 35 Up - 42 Up – 49 Up (various years) PBS (7 parts; varying lengths) Noted director Michael Apted has followed the lives of two groups of British school children : those “to the manor born , ” and those of the working class. Starting from age 7 (in 1964) and continuing through adulthood, we glimpse the changes their lives have undergone. Later films contain clips from earlier films; these are a “must - see.” Child of Our Time: A Year - by - Year Study of Childhood Development (2007) BBC (11 parts; 60 min each) In the year 2000, producers at the BBC began documenting the growth and development of 25 newborn children from a wide range of social, ethnic, and geographical backgrounds. This 11 - part series shows viewers the results so far, capturing pivotal stages in each child’s learning process, manner of socialization, and physical development. Grief: A Peril in Infancy (1940s) University of Akron (24 min). Renee Spitz's original footage of children in institutional environments is presented . The 1940s study highlights how grief impacted the physical and emotional life of children. John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations (2007) Films for the Humanities and Sciences (35 min). This film gives a solid overview of attachment theory, focusing on the work of its primary proponent. This is a solid introduction to a perspective that dominates the field of child and adolescent development. WEB LINKS American Academy of Pediatrics : www.aap.org Child Trends : www.childtrends.org Children, Youth, and Family Consortium (CYFC): www.cyfc.umn.edu Children's Institute International : www.childrensinstitute.org ChildStats: America's Children : www.childstats.gov ChildTrauma : www.childtrauma.org

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    16 CHAPTER 3 BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXTS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY CHAPTER SUMMARY From the moment of conception, development is influenced by multiple interacting factors and processes. Therefore, any risk factors for psychopathology must be considered within the biological and environmental contexts of development. This chapter provides an overview of each of the major influences on development -- biological, learning and cognitive, and sociocultural -- with an emphasis on how each influence can contribute to behavioral problems. Biological forces are often at the forefront of development. The influence of biology, in many ways, lays the groundwork for a child’s future. It can set in motion a series of changes that put a child at risk or that optimize his or her opportunities for growth. Prenatal influences – such as maternal stress, poor prenatal care, substance abuse, malnutrition, exposure to teratogenic agents, and other possible dangerous conditions -- are all potentially harmful factors that can have a major impact on the developing embryo and fetus. Structural anomalies, insults to various brain regions, problems in neurotransmission or neuro - transmitters, and abnormal development or functioning of the nervous systems are all factors that can put a child at risk. Perinatal influences -- including medication given to the mother during labor, unusual delivery, and anoxia -- may result in neurological problems in the newborn. Postnatal damage may occur as a result of accidents, illness, malnutrition, and exposure to harmful agents. The ability of the young to recover from brain insults is unpredictable. Whereas plasticity is obviously beneficial, early damage to the developing brain can interfere with subsequent development. Some genetic processes can produce structural defects or errors in chromosomes. Genetic influences occur through single - gene inheritance (Tay - Sachs, Huntington’s, sickle - cell anemia) and multigenetic process. These influences are studied through a variety of methods including adoption, twin and family methods , and molecular analyses. Genes and the environment collaborate with each other through gene - environment interactions and gene - environment correlations. Inheritance (along with shared and nonshared environmental effects) has been identified in many behavioral disorders. Gene - environment correlations remind us that a child’s experiences are not independent of genetic influences. Learning and cognition are closely interwoven with development. Through learning and cognition, children continuously take in information and think about the world . The models of classical conditioning, operant learning, and observational learning share the assumption that behavior is learned. A problem behavior can be changed through a learning process that can lead to both the acquisition of a new behavior and the removal of the problematic behavior. Approaches to cognition focus on how individuals mentally process information, perceive, construct and store their perceptions, and how they think and act according to this information. The sociocultural context of development consists of overlapping and interacting domains of influences that include family, peers, community, societal, and cul tural influences. Development, whether adaptive or maladaptive, occurs within this system and is also influenced by this system. The ecological model (ecology refers to the interrelationship of organisms and their environment) conceptualizes the young as

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    17 embedded within and interacting with numerous domains of overlapping, transactional environmental influences. Family influence, most prominent during childhood when developmental malleability is high, also may endure over the entire life span. Family interaction is complex, with caregivers taking on many roles. The quality of the relationship between parents and their offspring is best fostered through an authoritative, warm parenting style. Maltreatment of youth can be thought of as an extreme failure to provide adequate parenting. It can also be viewed as a failure of the larger social system to provide conditions that foster adequate parenting. Such undue failure to protect the child and/or provide positive aspects of parenting might be expected to adversely affect a wide variety of developmental processes and increase the risk for a variety of problematic outcomes. Since the late 1970s, the problems of abuse and maltreatment have become both a major public concern and the focus of increased research and professional attention. Multiple, interrelated, and complex determinants -- such as characteristics of the abuser, characteristics of the child, parenting practices, parent - child interactional processes, and sociocultural influences -- contribute to these problems. The socio - cultural context includes the immediate social environment (e.g., family employment, extended family, social networks) and the larger societal - cultural context (e.g., poverty, soci etal toler ance for violence). Sadly, parents or parent surrogates are the most likely perpetrators of abuse, although the majority of maltreated children do not perpetuate an intergenerational cycle. There is some evidence that early maltreatment may be associated with neurobiological outcomes and alteration of structural and functional regions of the brain, as well as cognitive and psychosocial difficulties, health - related problems, and appreciable impairments in all early developmental domains and later adjustment. In all cases, the basic developmental processes of children in abusive homes are disrupted by maltreatment. The family has often been assumed to consist of two parents and their children living together in the home. In fact, families have always been varied. Even so, dramatic changes have occurred in family structure during the last several decades in the United States and other Westernized countries. Divorce is a particularly complex process of family transitions that heightens developmental risk, and its effects on children depend on multiple variables. One of the many reasons that family factors affect the development of behavior and behavioral problems is their influence on peer relationships. Poor peer relationships in childhood are associated with both childhood problems and later problem behavior. Low socioeconomic status and the poverty associated with it disadvantage children in many facets of development. Poor children are exposed to multiple physical and psychosocial risks, including fewer enriched school opportunities and reduced motivation for learning and achievement. Poor neighborhoods also are a risk factor for reduced academic performance, mental health, and other aspects of development. Neighborhood influences may operate through community resources, family relationships, and social organization to maintain order. Finally, within a broad cultural context, behavior can be shaped in ways that are maladaptive for young people. Risk may be particularly high for individuals whose ethnic or racial background is other than mainstream. Factors such as involuntary acculturation and early experiences with prejudice, racism, and discrimination can have an impact on a child's early self - concept and emotional well - being. Unfortunately, minority group members often experience disadvantages in seeking and receiving appropriate treatment for behavioral problems.

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    18 CONTENT OUTLINE INTRODUCTION BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM Brain Development: Biology and Experience Structure Neurotransmission NERVOUS SYSTEM AND RISK FOR DISORDERED FUNCTIONING Prenatal Influences Perinatal and Postnatal Influences GENETIC CONTEXT Single - Gene Inheritance Multiple - Gene Inheritance: Quantitative Methods Searching for Genes and Their Effects: Molecular Methods Gene - Environment Interplay LEARNING AND COGNITION Classical Conditioning Operant Learning Observational Learning Cognitive Processes Cognitive - Behavioral Perspective SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXT: AN OVERVIEW FAMILY CONTEXT, MALTREATMENT, AND DIVORCE Parent Roles, Styles, Psychopathology Parental Roles Parenting Styles Parent Psychopathology Maltreatment Defining Maltreatment Factors Contributing to Maltreatment Consequences of Maltreatment Changes in Family Structure: Divorce Heightened Risk Predictors of Adjustment PEER INFLUENCES COMMUNITY AND SOCIETAL CONTEXTS School Influences Socioeconomic Status and Poverty Neighborhoods Culture, Ethnicity, and Minority Status OVERVIEW KEY TERMS

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    19 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss: ➢ Brain and nervous system development, structure, and function ➢ Pre - , peri - , and postnatal risks to the nervous system ➢ The genetic context of development, including genetic research ➢ Basic learning/cognitive processes and their role in development ➢ An ecological model of sociocultural influences on development ➢ The family context of development, including maltreatment and divorce ➢ Influences of peers on development ➢ Community and societal contexts of development KEY TERMS neurons (p. 37) myelin (p. 38) pruning (p. 38) central nervous system (p. 38) peripheral nervous system (p. 38) endocrine system (p. 38) hindbrain (p. 38) midbrain, forebrain (p. 3 9 ) cell body, dendrites, axon (p. 39) synapse (p. 39) neurotransmitter s (p. 39) teratogen s (p. 40) Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (p. 40) plasticity (p. 41) chromosomes (p. 41) DNA (p. 41) genes (p. 41) behavior genetics (p. 4 1 ) transcription (p. 42) translation (p. 42) epigenetics (p. 42) genotype, phenotype (p. 4 3 ) dominant genes, recessive genes (p. 43) index case, proband (p. 43) quantitative trait loci (QTL) (p. 43)

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    20 quantitative genetic methods (p. 43) heritability (p. 43) shared and nonshared environmental influences (p. 43) linkage analysis (p. 44) association analysis (p. 44) genome - wide linkage and association analyses (p. 44) gene - environment interaction (p. 44) gene - environment correlation (p. 44) classical conditioning (p. 45) operant learning (p. 45) observational learning (p. 47) cognitive - behavioral perspective (p. 47) parenting styles (p. 49) child abuse (p. 51) maltreatment (p. 51) acculturation (p. 62) LECTURE AND DISCUSSION IDEAS 1. Students’ own personal life story . Before discussing Chapter 3, have the students think about who they are. Which approach has contributed most to who they are today? For example, are they more a product of the earliest influences in their life (psychodynamic approach), early interpersonal bonds or losses (attachment theory), learning or modeling (behavioral), and so on? Lead a discussion focusing on the reasons for the beliefs they hold. 2. Behavior Theory, Social Learning Theory, and Day - to - Day Living a. Discuss the following points: Using the behavioral approach, how would you get a child to refrain from drawing on a wall by using either positive or negative reinforcement? b. What are the side effects if severe punishment is used to control behavior? Are there any examples of these side effects that we see in everyday life? According to behavior theory, what is the best way to control undesirable behavior? How does our society deal with undesirable behaviors? What are the results? What improvements could be made? c. Ask the class members to discuss the implications of modeling and media violence for children’s behavior. Does violence on television affect younger or older children equally? Should television viewing be limited? Are girls or boys affected more? Are there other examples of cultural violence your students can suggest? 3. The text labels Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) a preventable tragedy . Although this disturbing developmental problem may indeed be preventable, th is depends on pregnant women’s willingness to prevent. The federal government has mandated warning labels on containers of alcoholic beverages: “According to the Surgeon General, wo men should not drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy because of the risk of birth defects.” There is also a warning that “consumption of alcoholic beverages impairs your ability to drive a car or operate machinery, and may cause health problems.” Quite obviously, the latter warning is not always observed; in fact, some would say that it is largely ignored. With this in mind, one has to wonder about the effectiveness of the warning concerning pregnant women’s cons umption of alcohol. Have your students speculate about whether there is more that can be done to prevent FAS. Pose the question, “Should pregnant women be allowed to purchase alcoholic beverages?” Then, remind them that as in the case of underage drinking, other adults can

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    21 eas ily purchase alcohol for those who are prohibited from using it. This topic should generate some interesting discussion. 4. The Human Genome Project website . This website is a great resource for educating yourself about the Human Genome Project. You can click on any of the 24 chromosomes and determine the types of genetic diseases associated with each disorder. For a project, have students select any 5 chromosomes and compile a list of 20 associated disorders (e.g., chromosome 15, Tay Sachs disease). http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/info.shtml STUDENT ACTIVITIES 1. Experience a treatment: Dreams . Dreams were once considered the “royal road to the unconscious.” Have students keep a dream log. They should keep a red pencil and paper next to their beds (they may also want a small flashlight). Immediately upon waking, tell the students to record their dreams along with the date. Do they have any association or thoughts as to the meaning of the dream? Any symbolism they might consider? Have the students think about their current situations and life experiences to see if they uncover any conscious connections to their dreams. If possible, have them keep the dream log for a week to see if any further dreams or insights may arise. Many students will say they don’t dream. Remind them everyone dreams, although they may not recall their dreams. The availability of the paper and pen (and often the power of suggestion) may assist the students in better recall. Finally, have them analyze the possibilities of unconscious determinants. 2. Habit change : Have students consider a habit they may want to change (e.g., nail biting). Ask them to keep a behavior log for a week with separate columns for day, time of day, place and person, and situation during which the behavior occurred. You may then encourage students to follow up by considering ways to remove themselves from that situation. 3. The genogram: Sociocultural perspective . In order to provide a child and family with effective treatment, it is important to have a sense of the family as a unit. Some therapists prefer to use a genogram. Pendergast and Sherman (1978) suggest the use of the following symbols as students create their genogram: m ales - square; females - circle; pets - asterisk. A triangle within a circle indicates pregnancy; ages are placed inside the symbols; straight vertical lines indicate relationships by blood; dashed horizontal lines indicate non - married persons living together; a wavy line represents a conflictual relationship; a double slash across a horizontal line indicates divorce; and a single slash with an ‘s’ across a horizontal line is a separation. Pendergast, E.G., & Sherman, C.O. (1978). A guide to the genogram. In The best of the family 1973 - 1978. New York: The Center for Family Living. 4. Create your own genetic trait family tree . Have students learn more personally about genetic traits by going to this website: www.childrenheartinstitute.org/educate/fmlytree/fmlytree.htm If you are interested in creating your own genetic trait family tree, go to this website for instructions and a copy of a family tree to complete.

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    22 SUGGESTED BOOKS AND READINGS Books Burroughs, A. (2003). Running with scissors . Picador. Gregory, J., & Feldmann, M. (2003). Sickened: The memoir of a Munchausen by proxy childhood. New York: Bantam Books. Moffatt, G. K. (2003). Wounded innocents and fallen angel: Child abuse and child aggression. Praeger Publishers. Rymer, R. (1994). Genie: A scientific tragedy . Harper Paperbacks. Cole, T. (2004). Charred souls: A story of recreational child abuse . Oberpark Publishing. Wilson, S. (2000). Daddy's apprentice: Incest, corruption, and betrayal: A survivor's story . Writer's Showcase Press. Readings Boomsma, D. J. ; Busjahn, A. ; & Peltonen, L. (2002). Classical twin studies and beyond. Nature Reviews: Genetics, 3 , 872 - 882. Bouchard, T. J., Jr., & McGue, M. (2003). Genetic and environ mental influences on human psychological differences. Journal of Neurobiology, 54 , 4 - 45. Bouchard, T. J., Jr. (2004). Genetic Influences in human psychological traits: A survey. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(4) , 148 - 151. Carey, G. (2003). Human genetics for the social sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Evans, G.W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59 , 77 - 92. Hinton, D. (2001). Kyol Goeu (“Wind Overload”) Part 1: A cultural syndrome of orthostatic panic among Khmer refugees. Transcultural Psychiatry 38(4 ) , 403 - 432. Marcus, G. (2004). The birth of the mind: How a tiny number of genes creates the complexities of human thought. New York: Basic Books. Plomin, R. ; DeFries, J. C. ; Craig, I. W. ; & McGuffin, P. (Eds.) (2003). Behavioral genetics in the post - genomic era. Washing ton, DC: American Psychological Association. Ridley, M. (2003). Nature via nurture: Genes, experience and what makes us human. New York: HarperCollins. Rutter, M. (2002). Nature, nurture, and development: From evangelism through science toward policy and practice. Child Development, 73 , 1 - 21.

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    23 MEDIA RESOURCES Broken Child: Case Studies of Child Abuse (2000) HBO - Films for the Humanities and Sciences (61 min). Narrated by Susan Sarandon, this film investigates the cycle of child abuse. Includ ed are case studies of children with developmental difficulties caused by maternal substance abuse, PTSD from domestic violence, and children with life - threatening injuries from beatings. Broken Bonds: Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy Films for the Humanities and Sciences (26 min). This film examines the c ase of Morgan Reid, who was thought to have died from Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. When the Reid’s new born son began to experience similar symptoms, a review of the case led to a change in the ruling in Morgan's death from SIDS to murder. Essentials of Play Therapy with Abused Children (1998) Guilford Publications (40 min). Emphasizes the benefits of play therapy for children who have been physically or sexually abused. See the therapeutic playroom, how play therapies work, and helpful advice from professionals . Fetal Alcohol Exposure: Changing the Future (2007) Films for the Humanities and Sciences (31 min). Fetal alcohol syndrome can hold devastating consequences for those who acquire it. This film presents current thinking and research on diagnosis, education, and amelioration of this spectrum disorder. The Bad Seed (1956) Warner Studios Do heredity and environment play equal parts in a child's development? Or is one factor stronger than the other? We may never know … does bad beget bad? The Nine Months That Made You: Pregnancy and Human Development (2011) BBC (50 min). Where do babies come from? Hopefully your students already know. If so, this film will be a refresher. If not, this film will offer much - needed information! In any event, it will probably disabuse your students of some misbegotten notions they may hold regarding pregnancy and prenatal development. The Trouble with Evan (1996) Filmmaker's Library (90 min). A s early as age four, Evan displayed severe behavioral problems. Cameras were placed in Evan's home for three months. This film s hows moments of family conflict, intense verbal and emotional abuse , and the general goings - on around Evan’s home . It a lso includes excerpts of therapy sessions with five young offenders at a juvenile correction center. What Is Childhood Trauma? ( 2002) Understanding Childhood Trauma (29 min).

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    24 In this series , Bruce D. Perry explains how to identify, understand, and supportively respond to trauma in the life of a child.

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    25 WEB LINKS B.F. Skinner : www.bfskinner.org Classical Conditioning : www.brembs.net/classical/classical.html Human Genome Project : www.ornl.gov/hgmis Neurotransmitters in Living Color : www. micro.magnet.fsu.edu/micro/gallery/neurotrans/neurotrans.html News in Science : www.sciencedaily.com Operant Conditioning : www.uwm.edu/~johnchay/oc.htm Recent Developments in Human Behavioral Genetics : www.faseb.org/genetics/ashg/policy/pol - 28.htm Schedules of Reinforcement : www.brembs.net/operant/schedule.html Self - Efficacy : http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/self_efficacy.htm

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    26 CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH: ITS ROLE AND METHODS CHAPTER SUMMARY Science, from the Latin word for “knowledge” or “to know,” refers to knowledge gained by particular methods of inquiry. Although common sense can tell us some things about behavior, it is science that gives us systematic, reliable, and accurate knowledge. Through systematic scientific inquiry , researchers describe and explain phenomena in an effort to answer questions such as what differentiates normal and abnormal behavior, the demographic factors associated with specific disorders, or how psychological disorders change over time. Just as researchers pose a variety of questions and hypotheses, they rely on different methods and strategies to answer them, depending on the purposes of the research. In all cases, careful consideration must be given to selection of participants, observation and measurements, and the reliability and validity of the measurement process. Most psychological disorder research draws participants from clinics, hospitals, schools, and other facilities serving youngsters with problems. R andom selection helps ensure the sample tested represents the population from which it was drawn. However, it is unlikely these populations represent all young people. These biases have important implications for how disorders are recognized, assessed, defined, and represented. Observation and measurement are at the core of scientific inquiry. Accurate observation, clear operational definitions, reliable (consistent) and valid (accurate) measurement are essential features of the scientific process. The concepts of reliability and validity apply to the results of research as well. There’s an assumption that events should repeat themselves (reliability), given the same or similar conditions. There’s a more crucial assumption of the correctness (validity) of the findings. Internal valid ity is the degree to which alternative explanations for results can be confidently ruled out. External validity refers to the generalizability of findings to other populations and settings. There are many methods of research, each suited to particular purposes and each with associated strengths and weaknesses. The choice of a research method often depends on the purpose of the investigation, as well as practical and ethical considerations. One useful distinction is between descriptive (or nonexperimental) and experimental methods. The general purpose of descriptive methods is to portray a phenomenon of interest. Experimental studies can be either randomized or quasi - experimental. There are five research methods commonly used in the study of developmental psychopathology. The case study is a fertile source of descriptive material about an individual. Correlational studies provide information about the relationship among variables and are widely used in developmental psychopathology research. A more powerful way to examine hypotheses about relationships is to employ experiments of nature. A randomized experiment is the only “true” experiment because it is the strongest method for detecting causal links between variables. Single - case experimental designs involve a manipulation with a single (or a few) participants. Studies that consider change over time may be cross - sectional, longitudinal, or accelerated longitudinal in their design. The cross - sectional strategy examines groups of people at a particular point in time and frequently is used to examine age differences. The longitudinal strategy is more appropriate for tracing development over a span of time. Accelerated longitudinal designs combine the longitudinal and cross - sectional strategies to permit examination of developmental change, age differences, and the influence of

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    27 generational effects. Retrospective (follow - back) studies and prospective longitudinal strategies identify risk and possible causal factors. Epidemiological research, which has its foundations in medicine, is based on the assumption that disease or disorders can best be understood by viewing individuals in the context of the physical and social environments in which the disorder develops. Epidemiological research provides data on the rates and distribution of disorders, modes of transmission, and on factors correlated with the disorder in large populations. The findings contribute to and assist social policy efforts to deliver optimal mental health services. Recently there has been increased interest in qualitative strategies. Qualitative and quantitative strategies have often been viewed as adversarial, due perhaps to their different emphases. Qualitative research places a premium on individuals' perception of their experiences in their natural environments. Data often are collected through in - depth interviews or life histories. To support their positions, advocates of qualitative approaches point to what they see as many shortcomings of quantitative methods. However, used together, the methods can provide complementary sources of information. I mproved scientific methods may help achieve the goals of better assessment, more successful treatment, and the reduction or prevention of many child and adolescent disorders. The ethical conduct of research is especially salient when conducting studies with children and adolescents. Ethical guidelines are established and evaluated by institutional review boards. Some fundamental guidelines are voluntary informed consent, privacy, and assessment of risks and benefits to the participant. Ethical issues are further addressed by several government agencies and professional organizations. Special protection is given to the young and those with mental disabilities. Ultimately, judgments about what is ethical often come down to balancing the individual's competence to understand and voluntarily consent to participate, the risk of harm, and the possibility of benefit. The principle of confidentiality assures that research participants have the right to control the degree to which information can be disclosed to others. Plainly, no serious harm should be done to participants. Nonmaleficence refers to guarding against the potential for harm, whereas beneficence requires that benefits be maximized. CONTENT OUTLINE INTRODUCTION FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH Selection of Participants Observation and Measurement Reliability of Research Results Validity of Research Results BASIC METHODS OF RESEARCH Case Studies Correlational Studies Randomized Experiments Single - Case Experimental Design Reversal Designs Multiple Baseline Designs

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    28 TIME FRAMES IN RESEARCH Cross - Sectional Research Retrospective Longitudinal Research Prospective Longitudinal Research Accelerated Longitudinal Research QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Examples of Qualitative Studies Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods ETHICAL ISSUES Voluntary Informed Consent Confidentiality Balancing It All: Harm and Good OVERVIEW KEY TERMS LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, students should be able to discuss: ➢ The aim of science and the roles of observation and measurement ➢ Reliability and validity of research results ➢ The case study, correlational methods, the experiment, and single - subject designs ➢ Cross - sectional, longitudinal, and accelerated longitudinal designs ➢ Qualitative research ➢ Ethical issues in research KEY TERMS hypothesis testing (p. 66) random selection (p. 66) selection bias (p. 67) operational definition (p. 67) validity (p. 67) reliab le (p. 67) naturalistic observation (p. 67) interobserver reliability (p. 67)

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