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Class Notes for Children: A Chronological Approach, Fifth Canadian Edition

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    INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Sandy Schlieman Algonquin College CHILDREN A CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH Fifth Canadian Edition Robert V. Kail Purdue University Theresa Zolner King’s University

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    Chapter 1 Children - 1 Chapter 1 Child Development: Theories and Themes CHAPTER OVERVIEW MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films Module 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films INTERNET RESOURCES CASE STUDY HANDOUTS

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    Chapter 1 Children - 2 CHAPTER OVERVIEW I. MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT A. Canada’s Unique Contribution a. James Mark Baldwin b. Canadian Research c. Access to Historical Information http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/ B. The Biological Perspective a. Maturational Theory (Arnold Gesell) b. Ethological Theory (Konrad Lorenz) (1) Critical Period (2) Imprinting (3) Attachment C. The Psychodynamic Perspective a. Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud) b. Psychoanalysis c. Theory of Personality (1) Id (2) Ego (3) Superego d. Theory of Psychosexual Development e. Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson) (1) Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stages (Refer to Table 1-1) D. The Learning Perspective a. Classic Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) (1) Watson (Little Albert) b. Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner) (1) Reinforcement -- positive and negative reinforcement (2) Punishment c. Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura) (1) Imitation of Observational Learning (2) Self-Efficacy d. Imitation or Observational Learning e. Self-efficacy E. The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective a. Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) refer to Table 1-2 F. The Contextual Perspective a. Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development (Lev Vygotsky) b. Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner) refer to Figure 1-1

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    Chapter 1 Children - 3 G. Newer Approaches to Child Development a. Information-Processing Theory b. Evolutionary Theory c. Developmental Psychopathology H. The Big Picture: Comparing and Contrasting the Above Theories (Refer to Summary Table 1-3) II. MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH A. Early Development Is Related To Later Development But Not Perfectly ( continuity-versus-discontinuity issue ) B. Development Is Always Jointly Influenced By Heredity And Environment ( nature-nurture issue ) C. Children Help Determine Their Own Development ( active-passive child issue ) D. Development In Different Domains Is Connected (interconnected domains) MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Learning Objectives : LO1. Describe Canada’s unique contribution to developmental research. LO2. State the major tenets of the biological perspective. LO3. Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development. LO4. Identify the focus of learning theories. LO5. Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children's thinking. LO6. Name the main points of the contextual approach. LO7. Explain recent approaches to the study of child development. LO8. Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology. (See Handout 1-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.) MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

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    Chapter 1 Children - 4 Key Terms : theory natural selection maturational theory ethological theory critical period imprinting attachment psychoanalysis id ego superego libido body ego psychic skin neuropsychoanalysis psychodynamic theories psychosocial theory classical conditioning operant conditioning reinforcement punishment imitation observational (vicarious) learning social cognitive theory self-efficacy culture ecological theory mental hardware mental software evolutionary developmental psychology developmental psychopathology Classroom Activities : ♦ What Do You Know About Childhood? On the first day of class, instructors have experienced great success introducing students to the course material by creating a “true/false” quiz that emphasizes issues that will be addressed throughout the course. After covering the usual first-day tasks, ask the students to take out a blank piece of paper and record their answers to the following questions: TRUE or FALSE: 1. Breast-fed infants are psychologically “healthier” than formula-fed infants. (False) 2. Parents should avoid the use of spanking when disciplining their children. (True) 3. By law, children who are younger than 4 and who weigh less than 40 pounds must be secured in child safety restraints (i.e., a “car seat”) when riding in an automobile. (True) 4. Mothers have more natural or innate parenting skills than fathers. (False) 5. Children can develop secure attachment relationships to more than one adult. (True)

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    Chapter 1 Children - 5 6. Mothers who drink heavily while pregnant may cause permanent harm to their children. (True) 7. People never forget the trauma of their own births. (False) 8. A difficult infant will become a difficult child and a difficult adolescent. (False) 9. At birth, infants cannot see. (False) 10. Play contributes significantly to physical, intellectual, and social development of children. (True) Read through the items slowly to give the students a chance to record their answers. Then provide the correct answers during a second pass through the items. Inevitably, brief discussions will accompany the answers to certain items (e.g., breast-feeding, spanking, birth trauma, etc.), and these discussions serve the dual purpose of demonstrating the applicability of the information covered in the course and getting the students actively involved in class discussion. ♦ What Do You Want to Know about Childhood? Another first-day activity that gives the students a sense of “ownership” over some of the content of the course is described in detail by Douglas Hardwick (1996) of Illinois State University. On the first day of class, Hardwick asks his students to “think for a moment and then write out a question that you have about child development, but were afraid to ask” (p. 199). Students can do this individually or in small groups. These questions are then collected, sorted by topic category, and then read to the class on future class meetings to serve as organizational tools or discussion questions when relevant topics are covered. According to Hardwick (1996), typical topic categories of these questions include what he calls “basic concepts” (e.g., prenatal development, self-concept, sex roles, language and cognition, etc.), “the family” (e.g., working mothers, single parents, discipline, birth order, etc.), “special topics” (e.g., obesity, death, television, sports), and other issues. Most of these topics are typically addressed in child development courses, and additional students' questions – if asked frequently – may suggest new topics to include in your course. Source: Hardwick, D. A. (1996). On the value of asking students what they want to know about child development. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 6 ♦ Supporting Evidence for the Maturational Theory. According to maturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or plan within the body. Maturational theorists, like Arnold Gesell, argued that development is largely determined by biological forces; experience matters little. Consequently, Gesell argued that human development was quite predictable. (You may wish to mention that Gesell generated comprehensive norms of development that were utilized extensively by medical and child development professionals during the first half of the 20th century.) From their personal experiences with infants and young children, ask your class to cite evidence that supports Gesell’s contentions that development is predictable and biologically determined using the following question: What part of your upbringing would you attribute to the genes you inherited? ♦ From Ducklings to Infants. Ethological theory views development from an evolutionary perspective, meaning that many behaviours are viewed as adaptive (i.e., they have survival value). While human infants do not exhibit imprinting, ask your class to consider behaviours or abilities of infants that have survival value. Ask the class to explain how critical periods might exist for aspects of human development? ♦ Intrapsychic Conflict. Divide the class into three groups. Assign each group a component of personality, as described by Sigmund Freud. Inform the class that it will be their job to determine which component is being portrayed by each group. Present each group with a specific situation (e.g., deciding what to do tonight, seeing an attractive person, finding a lost wallet, etc.) Give each group a component id, ego, or superego. Ask each group to create a role-play that represents the component they have been assigned. Invite role-plays, reminding the players not to introduce the component. After a few minutes of role-playing, it should be obvious to the class the role that each group is portraying. ♦ Eriksonian Parenting Tips. Using Handout 1-2 (a reprint of the table in the text on “The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory”), ask the class to work in small groups in an effort to determine what parents should do to encourage a positive or healthy resolution to each of the first four psychosocial crises. Ask a recorder from each of the groups to list the parenting tips on the board. This discussion will provide ample opportunity to supplement the text’s coverage of Erikson’s theory and will facilitate comparisons to Freud’s psychosexual theory. ♦ Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is usually a difficult concept for students to grasp; they often believe that it is synonymous with punishment. To aid their comprehension of this construct, have your class complete Handout 1-3, either individually or in small groups.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 7  “Children See, Children Do.” How do children learn simply by watching others? Bandura’s social cognitive theory can be made clearer by asking your class about the cognitive processes involved in observational learning. Using the four steps involved in observational learning, ask students to identify something they had learned as a child through observational learning. Invite them to remember what they learned using the following four steps: (1) Attention : If one is to learn by watching another, one must pay attention to the actions of another. (2) Retention : Since learning usually involves the repetition of an action at a later point in time, the learner must remember what he/she attended to. (3) Reproduction : At some point, the action to which the learner attended and chose to retain must be reproduced or performed by the learner. (4) Motivation : Individuals will reproduce only those actions they are motivated to perform. Motivation can be influenced by the consequences that were observed following the actions performed by the model. Source: Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.  Your Developmental Ecology. Have your students complete Handout 1-4. This exercise will clarify the complicated constructs involved in Bronfenbrenner’s theory, effectively highlighting the interaction between the various systems that impact human development. This handout also reinforces the personal relevance of this developmental theory. This can be a take-home assignment for participation grades.  Who Said That? Either individually or in small groups, have your students complete Handout 1-5 A. This exercise will allow students to clarify the conceptual differences between the major theoretical perspectives reviewed. Who Do You Agree With? People usually have strong opinions about how children should be raised. The following story and questions will assist your students in comparing theories and deciding on which ones they agree with most. Using Hand-out 1- 5 B, ask students to read the story and choose an answer. Invite them to identify their answer using one of the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.  Advice Columns. What would Sigmund Freud or Albert Bandura suggest? This exercise (see Handout 1-6) will give your students a chance to speak for several notable developmental theorists. As a classroom exercise, Handout 1-6 should be completed in small groups. This handout can also be used as a homework assignment and as a take- home portion of an exam. Students respond well to it in any of these formats.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 8 Films: Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (Canadian Learning Company, 2003, 37 minutes). Bandura presents his social cognitive theory. It includes the classic Bobo doll experiment and his snake phobia work. B. F. Skinner: A Fresh Appraisal (Davidson Films, 1999, 41 minutes). This is a complete review and critique of the work of B. F. Skinner. This video puts to rest some myths, and credits Skinner with contributions not often attributed to him. B. F. Skinner and Behavior Change (Insight Media, 1975, 45 minutes). An overview of the ethics and applications of modern behaviourism. Child Development (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video provides an overview of the study of child development, including the ideas of early philosophers such as Locke and Rousseau and historically significant theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Bowlby, Watson, Gesell, and Piaget. The video also includes a review of research methodology utilized in the study of child development. Child Development: stepping stones (Coast Learning Systems, 2002, 30 minutes). This video discusses the context and influences in human development. It explores some of the major theories from the study of psychology such as psychoanalytical theory, learning theory, behaviourism, and cognitive theory. The final segment introduces the life span perspective. Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock… and Beyond (Learning Zone Express, 2009). Theorists presented include Sigmund Freud, Maria Montessori, Arnold Gesell, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Rudolf Dreikurs, Erik Erikson, Abraham Maslow, John Bowlby, B. F. Skinner, Benjamin Spock, Lawrence Kohlberg, T. Berry Brazelton, Diana Baumrind, and Howard Gardner. The Child’s Mind (Insight Media, 1978, 30 minutes). This is a presentation the information-processing approach to understanding cognitive development. Classical and Operant Conditioning (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 56 minutes). The principles of behaviourism are explained, as are its important applications in clinical therapy, education and child-rearing. Cognitive Development (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). This is an overview of Piaget’s theory. It also reviews general aspects of cognition and language development. Discovering Psychology, Part 8: Learning (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes). Classic footage of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner demonstrating the fundamentals of classical and operant conditioning are included in this video.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 9 Erik H. Erikson: A Life’s Work (Insight Media, 1991, 38 minutes). Erik Erikson discusses his stage theory of psychosocial development. Everybody Rides the Carousel (Pyramid, 1975, 73 minutes in 3 parts). A carousel and its riders are used as metaphors to describe Erikson’s eight stages. Freud: The Hidden Nature of Man (Learning Corporation of America, 1970,27 minutes). This video is an introduction to many basic Freudian concepts, including sexuality, consciousness, and a discussion of the id, ego, and the superego. Learning (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Includes an interview with B.F. Skinner and reviews some applications of classical and operant conditioning. The Learning Infant (Insight Media, 1988, 30 minutes). This includes a demonstration of classical and operant conditioning with infants. Jean Piaget (Insight Media, 1969, Part I: 40 minutes; Part II: 40 minutes). Part I: An interview with Jean Piaget highlights his stages of development and other developmental issues including motivation, learning, and perception. Part II: Piaget presents his views on Freud’s developmental concepts and his reactions to criticism and misapplication of his own theory. Piaget’s Developmental Theory: An Overview (Davidson Films, 1989, 30 minutes). David Elkind introduces Piaget’s theory and interviews children. The video includes clear demonstrations of egocentric thought and conservation of liquid. Piaget on Piaget (Yale University, 1978, 45 minutes). Piaget discusses his theory of cognitive development. Theories of Development (Insight Media, 1997, 29 minutes). This video provides an overview of the cognitive, psychosexual, psychosocial, behaviourist, social-learning, and sociocultural theories of child development. The work of Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Gesell, Skinner and Vygotsky are featured. Theories of Human Development (Insight Media, 2002, 30 minutes). This video highlights six major theories of human development: Freud’s psychodynamic theory, Erikson’s psychosocial theory, the integrated theory of Bowlby and Ainsworth, Bandura’s social learning theory, Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s cognitive mediation theory. Transitions throughout the Lifespan: The Developing Person. (Magic Lantern, 2003, 28 minutes). This is an introduction to the study of human development. The focus is on the

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    Chapter 1 Children - 10 impact of nature and nurture through the work of John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson. It also includes Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of development. Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction (Canadian Learning Company, 1994, 28 minutes). This is an in introduction to the life, vocabulary and concepts of Vygotsky, by using early childhood and primary classrooms.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 11 Learning Objectives: LO9. Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predicted from early life. LO10. Understand how heredity and environment influence development. LO11. Specify what role children have in their own development. LO12. State how development in different domains is connected. Classroom Activities: ♦ Nature-Nurture Demonstration. To clarify the complicated interaction of genetics and environment, David Miller (1996) of the University of Connecticut recommends the use of a cooking metaphor. With the use of pictures or actual ingredients, Miller demonstrates that a basic ingredient (flour is used to represent genetic inheritance), when combined with a few additional ingredients and exposed to various “treatments” (e.g., frying versus baking), interacts to produce very different outcomes (representing individual developmental differences). Miller demonstrates the following cases: Basic Ingredient Additional Ingredients Treatment Developmental Outcome FLOUR SALT + WATER FRYING FLOUR TORTILLA FLOUR SALT + WATER BAKING MATZO FLOUR SALT + WATER + YEAST BAKING BREAD FLOUR SALT + BUTTER + COCOA + SUGAR BAKING BROWNIE Miller’s (1996) demonstration concludes with a discussion of various aspects of the nature-nurture issue, including: (a) the concept of developmental constraints (e.g., the limitations of ingredients and treatments); (b) how genes do not code for specific developmental outcomes (e.g., flour alone does not produce a specific food item); (c) the inseparability of genetic and environmental contributions to development (e.g., What makes a brownie a brownie? The ingredients or the baking process?); and (d) the inability to identify specific, constituent elements of the developmental product (e.g., try as hard as she might, my daughter cannot extract the cocoa from the rest of the brownie). MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD - DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

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    Chapter 1 Children - 12 Source: Miller, D. B. (1996). The nature-nurture issue: Lessons from the Pillsbury doughboy. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.  Active-Passive Debate. Choose a specific issue (e.g., sex-role, hobbies, personality characteristics, toy choices, etc.) and have the class debate the role that children play in its development (active versus passive). Divide the class in half, or have students work in small groups, each assigned to either the active or passive perspective. To foster integrative thinking, ask the students to identify theorists who share their perspective. Films: Contexts of Development (RMI Media Productions, 1993, 30 minutes). This video highlights the interactive influences of biological, social, economic, and cultural factors on human development. Human Brain Development (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). The DVD demonstrates the interplay of genetic predispositions and experiences in the development of the brain after birth. Worlds of Childhood, Programs 5, 23, and 24 (Great Plains National Instructional Television Library, 1993, 30 minutes each). Program 5, Nature and Nurture Interwoven, includes a review of research on twin studies. Programs 23 and 24, Nature and Nurture of Development (Parts I and II), explore the roles of biology, history, economics, family, peers, school, community, and culture in child development.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 13 INTERNET RESOURCES • www.cpa.ca Canadian Psychological Association • www.apa.org • www.aps.org American Psychological Association and American Psychological Society addresses. • www.piaget.org • archivespiaget.ch These are the locations of the Jean Piaget Society and the Jean Piaget Archives. • psychclassics.yorku.ca This is an internet resource for historical information about psychology/theorists. • www.phac-aspc.gc.ca Public Health Agency of Canada Childhood and Adolescence • www.kidshealth.org Growth and Development and Health related topics

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    Chapter 1 Children - 14 CASE STUDY: The Science of Child Development Dungeon of Doom: Part I “He’s still playing Dungeon of Doom ? I’m getting worried about the amount of time Matthew spends in front of that video game, Yannick.” “I don’t think Matthew is going to be harmed by it, Shani. It’s just a game. He still plays with his kindergarten friends, and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.” “But I worry that he’ll start to become a bully – make that a ‘Dungeon Master.’ Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.” “That won’t be easy, Shani, but it’s probably a good idea. Besides, if Matthew spends less time playing Dungeon of Doom, I can spend more time playing my favourite video game, Carnival of Carnage. ” 1. How can Sigmund Freud's theory of personality be used to explain the appeal of video games like Dungeon of Doom or Carnival of Carnage? 2. What kinds of concerns might Erik Erikson have about 6-year-old Matthew's habitual video game playing? 3. What suggestions would B. F. Skinner have for changing Matthew’s behaviour? 4. Impose the contextual perspectives of Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner on the case described above.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 15 HANDOUT 1-1 Learning Objectives for Chapter 1: Child Development: Theories and Themes LO1 Describe Canada’s unique contribution to child development. LO2 State the major tenets of the biological perspective. LO3 Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development. LO4 Identify the focus of learning theories. LO5 Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children's thinking. LO6 Name the main points of the contextual approach. LO7 Explain recent approaches to the study of child development. LO8 Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology. LO9 Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predicted from early life. LO10 Understand how heredity and environment influence development. LO11 Specify what role children have in their own development. LO12 State how development in different domains is connected.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 16 HANDOUT 1-2 The First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory Directions : What would Erikson suggest for parents who are raising children that fit into the following four stages? Psychosocial Stage Age Challenge Eriksonian Parenting Tips Basic trust vs. Mistrust Birth to 1 year To develop a sense that the world is safe; a “good place.” Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 1 to 3 years To realize that one is an independent person who can make decisions. Initiative vs. Guilt 3 to 6 years To develop the ability to try new things and to handle failure. Industry vs. Inferiority 6 years to adolescence To learn basic skills and to work with others.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 17 HANDOUT 1-3 Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement Directions : In each of the following scenarios, identify the type(s) of reinforcement present, as well as who is being reinforced. (Note: Some scenarios involve both positive and negative reinforcement.) 1. Andrew will not take his asthma medication daily, as his doctor has prescribed. Andrew’s parents have been nagging him, telling him that he may have to be rushed to the hospital if he doesn’t take the medicine as directed. 2. Rowena was given a sticker every time she remembered to brush her teeth. 3. Julio’s parents went to great lengths to provide him with hot dogs and cheese fries since he would have serious temper tantrums if given any other type of food. 4. Angela is a third-grader in Mr. Robertson’s class. Mr. Robertson is giving each child work materials individually. As Mr. Robertson turns to each child, Angela makes grunting noises and yells, “teacher, teacher – me next!” On each occasion, Mr. Robertson turns to Angela and says, “Shhh, wait your turn.” 5. At supper, Taeyung has to eat a little bit of everything prepared, including the dreaded vegetables. If he picks a fight with his little sister, he is immediately sent to his room with his plate. Taeyung has been sent to his room four times in the past week.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 18 HANDOUT 1-4 Your Developmental Ecology Directions : Think of yourself at a particular time in your childhood (e.g., age 12). Using Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, reflect on the following influences on your development: Microsystem Your descriptions and reflections: your family your school and teacher your peer group the media (favourite TV shows, books, movies, video games, etc.) your neighbourhood or surrounding community Mesosystem how your parents interacted with your peers how your parents interacted with your school whether your parents helped with school work how your community supported your school or activities (e.g., sports) Exosystem your parents’ jobs vacations you took whether there was a divorce in the family Macrosystem your ethnic heritage your religious beliefs whether you lived in an urban or rural setting your social class (e.g., lower, middle, upper) what was going on in the world at the time (e.g., who was president, wars or conflicts, social movements, trends or fads, etc.) Source: Horton, S. & Preisser, G. (1997). Instructor’s resource manual for development across the lifespan. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 19 HANDOUT 1-5 A Who Said That? Directions : Match the theorist or theoretical perspective to the statement that best represents their viewpoint. Explain your choice. B. F. Skinner Sigmund Freud Albert Bandura Ecological Theory Information-Processing Theory Erik Erikson John Locke Evolutionary Theory Arnold Gesell Developmental Psychopathology Vygotsky 1. In everyday life, unconscious needs are struggling for expression; behaviour and development is the product of efforts to satisfy needs. 2. Humans are limited in how much information they can process at any given time, but these limits increase as one develops. 3. Development is the product of one’s biological plan; experience matters little. 4. Presents an understanding of how abnormal development occurs. 5. Focused on ways that adults convey to children the beliefs, customs, and skills of their culture 6. People learn from observing others. 7. Development involves facing a sequence of crises or challenges. How earlier crises are resolved influences later development. 8. Thought develops in four qualitatively different stages, ranging from exploring through the senses and motor abilities to abstract thinking. 9. Behaviours and characteristics are shaped for survival. 10. One’s development is influenced by the reinforcements and punishments one receives. 11. The human infant is a blank slate; experiences mould and shape it into a distinct individual.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 20 HANDOUT 1-5 B Who Do You Agree With? Read the following story: Melissa is three years old and starting her first day of preschool. She cries when her mother leaves. She continues to do this every day and after two weeks the teachers and the parents sit down to figure out how to help Melissa. Teacher 1 says, “Ignore this behaviour, just drop her off, say “goodbye” and we will settle her with an activity.” Teacher 2 says, “Melissa needs more information. Let’s tell her what is happening when it happens and then she will know that after outside time her parents come to pick her up.” Teacher 3 says, “Melissa needs some nurturing. We should assign a teacher to her so she can attach and feel bonded to one of us.” Choose the statement that you agree with most , even though you might agree with all of them choose one that feels most right to you. There is no wrong answer. Compare the response you have chosen to the theoretical perspectives. Which one do you agree the most?

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    Chapter 1 Children - 21 HANDOUT 1-6 Advice Columns Directions : Indicate below how each theorist would explain these challenges and recommend how the theorist might respond to them. B.F. Skinner Sigmund Freud Atai (6 years old) gets upset when her father pays attention to her younger brother. She insists on playing video games and other two- player games with her father in an attempt to exclude her brother. Erik Erikson Arnold Gesell Luka (2.5 years old) insists on bathing and dressing himself even though he doesn’t do either very well. Albert Bandura Jean Piaget Emily and Ethan (5- year-old twins) messy eaters. After a meal there is always a mess on the table, the floor, and themselves.

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    Chapter 2 Children – 1 Chapter 2 Research in Child Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 2.1: DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films Module 2.2: CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY POLICY Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films INTERNET RESOURCES CASE STUDY HANDOUTS

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    Chapter 2 Children – 2 CHAPTER OVERVIEW I. MODULE 2.1: DOING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH A. Measurement in Child Development Research 1. Systematic Observation a. Naturalistic Observation b. Variables (Maria Montessori) c. Structured Observation (Mary Ainsworth) 2. Sampling Behaviour with Tasks a. Ecological Validity 3. Self Reports a. Demand Characteristics b. Reliability and Validity c. Convergent and Divergent Validity 4. Representative Sampling a. Population b. Sample c. Each Canadian region has different population demographics B. General Designs for Research 1. Correlational Studies a. Correlational Design b. Correlation Coefficient ( r ) 2. Experimental Studies a. Experiment b. Independent Variable c. Dependent Variable d. Mediator Variable e. Field Experiment C. Methods for Studying Development 1. Longitudinal Studies (including microgenetic studies ) 2. Sequential Studies (including cohort effects, practice effect and attrition ) 3. Cross-sectional Studies 4. Making Children’s Lives Better: “ Longitudinal Research on Young People in Canada” 5. Table 2-2 Summary Table of Designs Used in Child Development Research D. Ethical Responsibilities 1. Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists 2. Minimize risks to research participants 3. Describe the research to potential participants so they can determine if they wish to participate

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    Chapter 2 Children – 3 4. Avoid deception; if participants must be deceived, provide a thorough explanation of the true nature of the research as soon as possible. 5. Keep results anonymous or confidential 6. Table 2-3 Principles of the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists E. Communicating Research Results II. MODULE 2.2: CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY POLICY A. Background and Definition 1. Family Policy 2. Evidence-based Practices B. Ways to Influence Social Policy 1. Build Understanding of Children and Their Development 2. Serve as an Advocate for Children (Child Find) 3. Evaluate Policies and Programs 4. Develop a Model Program C. An Emphasis on Policy Implications Improves Research 1. Quasi-experimental Design MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Learning Objectives: 1. Discuss how scientists measure topics of interest in children’s development. 2. List what general research designs are used in child-development research and note which designs are unique to child-development research. 3. Describe common methods for studying development. 4. Detail what ethical procedures researchers must follow. 5. Understand how researchers communicate results to other scientists. (See Handout 2-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.) MODULE 2.1: DOING CHILD - DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

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    Chapter 2 Children – 4 Key Terms: systematic observation naturalistic observation variables structured observation ecological validity self reports demand characteristics reliability validity convergent validity divergent validity population sample correlational study correlation coefficient( r ) P-Value descriptive statistics inferential statistics experiment independent variable dependent variable mediator variable field experiment longitudinal study microgenetic study sequential design cohort effect practice effect attrition cross-sectional study Classroom Activities : ♦ “Naturalistic Observation? That’s So Simple.” This is usually the initial reaction voiced by students when naturalistic observation is discussed as a research tool. Ask the class to design a study utilizing naturalistic observation. Invite the class to generate several hypotheses , then vote on the one they would like to pursue. Once the hypothesis is chosen, we proceed to specify and operationalize variables of interest. The class then discusses some of the procedural aspects of such a study, including the location, observational strategies, and concerns about confounding variables . This can be turned into a class project, students actually conduct the study they designed (after receiving Ethical Review Board approval). ♦ Understanding Correlations. To illustrate the concept that correlation does not equal causation, have the class generate examples of variables that co- vary, and discuss why causal relationships between them cannot be determined. Further, to introduce the concept of spurious correlations, ask the class to think of variables that are highly correlated, but meaningless (e.g., birds migrate south when footballs appear in neighbourhoods). ♦ “Results of a Recent Study Indicate that People Rarely Question the Results of Recent Studies.” For an advanced developmental course : Ask your students to locate a study on some aspect of development that is of interest to them and bring a copy of the Method section to class. In small groups, have the students engage in critical reviews of the articles that they found, focusing

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    Chapter 2 Children – 5 on sample representativeness and the reliability and validity of the measures or procedures used. Since students often ignore the method section of journal articles, this exercise should render this section less threatening while honing their critical thinking skills. For an introductory developmental course : Ask your students to find research results that have been reported in the mass (print) media, make copies of the stories, and bring them to class. Ask for some volunteers to summarize their stories, reading verbatim the section reporting the research results. Then guide the class through a discussion of how to critically interpret the reported results. This exercise produces the same result as the one described above for advanced courses: Students will develop sharper critical thinking skills. ♦ Designing an Experiment. In small groups, have your students design an experiment. Handout 2-3 will guide them through the process of stating a hypothesis, identifying and operationalizing variables, and considering a variety of methodological and ethical issues. ♦ Longitudinal versus Cross-sectional Designs. Before the class session on developmental research methods, assign half of your students a longitudinal study to read and half a cross-sectional study to read on the same topic. In class, have the students compare and contrast the results obtained with the different research designs. Also, have your students debate the advantages and disadvantages of each design. ♦ Evaluating Developmental Research Methods. As a comprehensive review of the research method module in the chapter, ask your students to complete Handout 2-4, either in class or as a homework assignment. ♦ Where Did They Go Wrong? Present your students with brief examples of unethical research practices and ask them to identify the violations present. Handout 2-5 includes some research situations that students can assess. This handout works well either as an in-class small group exercise or as a homework assignment. ♦ Guest Speaker: Developmental Researchers. Invite faculty and or graduate students from your institution to talk about their research. This gives students an opportunity to learn about the Developmental Psychology research occurring around them as well as to participate as volunteers in a research lab.

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    Chapter 2 Children – 6 Films: Observation (Magna Systems, 2003, 27 minutes). The four areas of development: physical, cognitive, language and social – emotional, the students are guided through the sequences of naturalistic observation of infants, toddlers and preschoolers. My Brother’s Keeper—Ethics in America 11 (Annenberg Learner, 2000, 57 minutes). Families and individuals struggle with college applications, promotions at work, the actions of their neighbors, and try to determine what to do when important values about questions of fairness, loyalty and ethics. A Better Brain: The Ethics of Neuro-Enhancement—Ethics in America II (Annenberg Learner 2007 57 minutes) New drugs have found a place in the university setting where students find that pharmaceuticals help them study better, work faster and remember much more. By enhancing their performance this way, are they cheating? Are they possibly endangering themselves? Non-Experimental Research Methods (Shortcuts TV, 16 minutes) Using a range of classic and contemporary studies, this film illustrates and evaluates the strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of three different types of non-experimental methods used by psychologists to study social behavior: Case Studies, Naturalistic Observation and Self-Report Methods. Research Methods ( Magic Lantern Communications Ltd., 2001, 30 minutes). An overview of observational and descriptive research is used to illustrate how the scientific method is used to study the relationship between violent video games and aggression. The Scientific Method (Insight Media, 2001, 20 minutes). This video shows how to plan an experiment and obtain and analyze evidence. It considers the implications of scientific research, emphasizes the importance of its dissemination, and shows how scientific controversies arise. The video also considers the limitations of science and the value of critical thinking. Understanding Research (Magic Lantern Communications Ltd., 2001, 27 minutes). This is an examination of the scientific method and the ways to collect and analyze data. Understanding Psychology: Experimental Methods in Psychology (Insight Media, 2004, 37 minutes). This DVD is an examination of attractiveness research. It examines variables that affect a person’s perception of others and considers whether that perception can be manipulated. The DVD questions whether laboratory and field experiments yield the same results.

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    Chapter 2 Children – 7 Understanding Psychology: Non-Experimental Research Methods (Insight Media, 2006, 32 minutes). Researchers in this DVD explain their methodologies, and expert analyses of young people’s cell phone use. It explores the use of questionnaires, surveys, interviews, and naturalistic observations.

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    Chapter 2 Children – 8 Learning Objectives: 6. Describe why child-development researchers have recently become more involved in designing social policy. 7. State how child-development researchers influence family policy. 8. Discuss how concern for family policy has improved child-development research. Key Terms: family policy evidence - based practices quasi - experimental design Classroom Activities : ♦ Guest Speaker: Child Advocate. Invite a speaker from any local child advocacy group and ask that speaker to talk with your class about issues that have been informed and shaped by developmental research. This expert can discuss how developmental research can be translated into law or public policy. ♦ Guest Speaker: Lawyer Specializing in Divorce Mediation and Custody Arrangements. Invite a family lawyer who is well-informed about developmental research pertaining to the impact of divorce on children and how various custody arrangements influence the development of children. Invite students to prepare questions in advance that they would like to ask about family law. ♦ Petitioning Policymakers. This exercise could be developed into a major project to be completed in stages as the course progresses. Divide your students into groups (or the class can work together as one group if it is a small class) and ask each group to identify a significant developmental issue that has family policy implications (e.g., adolescent substance use and abuse, child abuse, teen sexuality and pregnancy, divorce and custody arrangements, poverty and public assistance programs, etc.). Each group should thoroughly investigate the developmental research available on the issue, then contact a person at the local, county, MODULE 2.2: CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY POLICY

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