Class Notes for Children: A Chronological Approach, Fifth Canadian Edition

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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUALSandy SchliemanAlgonquinCollegeCHILDRENA CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACHFifth Canadian EditionRobert V. KailPurdue UniversityTheresa ZolnerKing’s University

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Chapter 1Children-1Chapter 1Child Development: Theories and ThemesCHAPTER OVERVIEWMODULE SUPPLEMENTSModule 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENTLearning ObjectivesKey TermsClassroom ActivitiesFilmsModule 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCHLearning ObjectivesKey TermsClassroom ActivitiesFilmsINTERNET RESOURCESCASE STUDYHANDOUTS

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Chapter 1Children-2CHAPTER OVERVIEWI.MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENTA.Canada’s Unique Contributiona.James Mark Baldwinb.Canadian Researchc.Access to Historical Informationhttp://psychclassics.yorku.ca/B.The Biological Perspectivea.Maturational Theory (Arnold Gesell)b.Ethological Theory (Konrad Lorenz)(1)Critical Period(2)Imprinting(3)AttachmentC.The Psychodynamic Perspectivea.Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud)b.Psychoanalysisc.Theory of Personality(1)Id(2)Ego(3)Superegod.Theory of Psychosexual Developmente.Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson)(1)Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stages (Refer to Table 1-1)D.The Learning Perspectivea.Classic Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)(1)Watson (Little Albert)b.Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)(1)Reinforcement -- positive and negative reinforcement(2)Punishmentc.Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura)(1)Imitation of Observational Learning(2)Self-Efficacyd.Imitation or Observational Learninge.Self-efficacyE.The Cognitive-Developmental Perspectivea.Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) refer to Table 1-2F.The Contextual Perspectivea.Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development (Lev Vygotsky)b.Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner) refer to Figure 1-1

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Chapter 1Children-3G.Newer Approaches to Child Developmenta.Information-Processing Theoryb.Evolutionary Theoryc.Developmental PsychopathologyH.The Big Picture: Comparing and Contrasting the Above Theories(Refer to Summary Table 1-3)II.MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCHA.Early Development Is Related To Later Development But Not Perfectly(continuity-versus-discontinuity issue)B.Development Is Always Jointly Influenced By Heredity AndEnvironment(nature-nurture issue)C.Children Help Determine Their Own Development(active-passive child issue)D.Development In Different Domains Is Connected(interconnected domains)MODULE SUPPLEMENTSLearning Objectives:LO1.Describe Canada’s unique contribution to developmental research.LO2.State the major tenets of the biological perspective.LO3.Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.LO4.Identify the focus of learning theories.LO5.Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children'sthinking.LO6.Name the main points of the contextual approach.LO7.Explain recent approaches to the study of child development.LO8.Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology.(See Handout 1-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

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Chapter 1Children-4Key Terms:theorynatural selectionmaturational theoryethological theorycritical periodimprintingattachmentpsychoanalysisidegosuperegolibidobody egopsychic skinneuropsychoanalysispsychodynamic theoriespsychosocial theoryclassical conditioningoperant conditioningreinforcementpunishmentimitationobservational (vicarious) learningsocial cognitive theoryself-efficacycultureecological theorymental hardwaremental softwareevolutionary developmental psychologydevelopmental psychopathologyClassroom Activities:♦What Do You Know About Childhood?On the first day of class, instructors haveexperienced great success introducing students to the course material by creating a“true/false” quiz that emphasizes issues that will be addressed throughout the course.After covering the usual first-day tasks, ask the students to take out a blank piece ofpaper and record their answers to the following questions:TRUE or FALSE:1.Breast-fed infants are psychologically “healthier” than formula-fed infants.(False)2.Parents should avoid the use of spanking when disciplining their children.(True)3.By law, children who are younger than 4 and who weigh less than 40 pounds must besecured in child safety restraints (i.e., a “car seat”) when riding in an automobile.(True)4.Mothers have more natural or innate parenting skills than fathers.(False)5.Children can develop secure attachment relationships to more than one adult.(True)

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Chapter 1Children-56.Mothers who drink heavily while pregnant may cause permanent harm to theirchildren. (True)7.People never forget the trauma of their own births.(False)8.A difficult infant will become a difficult child and a difficult adolescent.(False)9.At birth, infants cannot see. (False)10.Play contributes significantly to physical, intellectual, and social development ofchildren. (True)Read through the items slowly to give the students a chance to record their answers.Then provide the correct answers during a second pass through the items. Inevitably,brief discussions will accompany the answers to certain items (e.g., breast-feeding,spanking, birth trauma, etc.), and these discussions serve the dual purpose ofdemonstrating the applicability of the information covered in the course and getting thestudents actively involved in class discussion.♦What Do You Want to Know about Childhood?Another first-day activity thatgives the students a sense of “ownership” over some of the content of the course isdescribed in detail by Douglas Hardwick (1996) of Illinois State University. On the firstday of class, Hardwick asks his students to “think for a moment and then write out aquestion that you have about child development, but were afraid to ask” (p. 199).Students can do this individually or in small groups. These questions are then collected,sorted by topic category, and then read to the class on future class meetings to serve asorganizational tools or discussion questions when relevant topics are covered.According to Hardwick (1996), typical topic categories of these questions include what hecalls “basic concepts” (e.g., prenatal development, self-concept, sex roles, language andcognition, etc.), “the family” (e.g., working mothers, single parents, discipline, birthorder, etc.), “special topics” (e.g., obesity, death, television, sports), and other issues.Most of these topics are typically addressed in child development courses, and additionalstudents' questions – if asked frequently – may suggest new topics to include in yourcourse.Source:Hardwick, D. A. (1996). On the value of asking students what they want to know about childdevelopment. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.),Handbook of demonstrations and activities in theteaching of psychology.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Chapter 1Children-6♦Supporting Evidence for the Maturational Theory.According tomaturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme orplan within the body. Maturational theorists, like Arnold Gesell, argued thatdevelopment is largely determined by biological forces; experience matters little.Consequently, Gesell argued that human development was quite predictable. (You maywish to mention that Gesell generated comprehensive norms of development that wereutilized extensively by medical and child development professionals during the first halfof the 20th century.) From their personal experiences with infants and young children,ask your class to cite evidence that supports Gesell’s contentions that development ispredictable and biologically determined using the following question: What part of yourupbringing would you attribute to the genes you inherited?♦From Ducklings to Infants.Ethological theory views development from anevolutionary perspective, meaning that many behaviours are viewed as adaptive (i.e.,they have survival value). While human infants do not exhibit imprinting, ask yourclass to consider behaviours or abilities of infants that have survival value. Ask theclass to explain how critical periods might exist for aspects of human development?♦Intrapsychic Conflict.Divide the class into three groups. Assign each group acomponent of personality, as described by Sigmund Freud. Inform the class that it willbe their job to determine which component is being portrayed by each group. Presenteach group with a specific situation (e.g., deciding what to do tonight, seeing anattractive person, finding a lost wallet, etc.) Give each group a component id, ego, orsuperego. Ask each group to create a role-play that represents the component they havebeen assigned. Invite role-plays, reminding the players not to introduce the component.After a few minutes of role-playing, it should be obvious to the class the role that eachgroup is portraying.♦Eriksonian Parenting Tips.Using Handout 1-2 (a reprint of the table in the texton “The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory”), ask the class towork in small groups in an effort to determine what parents should do to encourage apositive or healthy resolution to each of the first four psychosocial crises. Ask a recorderfrom each of the groups to list the parenting tips on the board. This discussion willprovide ample opportunity to supplement the text’s coverage of Erikson’s theory and willfacilitate comparisons to Freud’s psychosexual theory.♦Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement.Negative reinforcement isusually a difficult concept for students to grasp; they often believe that it is synonymouswith punishment. To aid their comprehension of this construct, have your classcomplete Handout 1-3, either individually or in small groups.

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Chapter 1Children-7“Children See, Children Do.”How do children learn simply by watchingothers? Bandura’s social cognitive theory can be made clearer by asking your classabout the cognitive processes involved in observational learning. Using the four stepsinvolved in observational learning, ask students to identify something they had learnedas a child through observational learning. Invite them to remember what they learnedusing the following four steps:(1)Attention: If one is to learn by watching another, one must pay attention to the actions ofanother.(2)Retention: Since learning usually involves the repetition of an action at a later point in time,the learner must remember what he/she attended to.(3)Reproduction: At some point, the action to which the learner attended and chose to retainmust be reproduced or performed by the learner.(4)Motivation: Individuals will reproduce only those actions they are motivated to perform.Motivation can be influenced by the consequences that were observed following the actionsperformed by the model.Source:Bandura, A. (1977).Social learning theory.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Your Developmental Ecology.Have your students complete Handout 1-4.This exercise will clarify the complicated constructs involved in Bronfenbrenner’s theory,effectively highlighting the interaction between the various systems that impact humandevelopment. This handout also reinforces the personal relevance of this developmentaltheory. This can be a take-home assignment for participation grades.Who Said That?Either individually or in small groups, have your studentscomplete Handout 1-5 A. This exercise will allow students to clarify the conceptualdifferences between the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.Who Do You Agree With?People usually have strong opinions about howchildren should be raised. The following story and questions will assist your students incomparing theories and deciding on which ones they agree with most. Using Hand-out 1-5 B, ask students to read the story and choose an answer. Invite them to identify theiranswer using one of the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.Advice Columns.What would Sigmund Freud or Albert Bandura suggest? Thisexercise (see Handout 1-6) will give your students a chance to speak for several notabledevelopmental theorists. As a classroom exercise, Handout 1-6 should be completed insmall groups. This handout can also be used as a homework assignment and as a take-home portion of an exam. Students respond well to it in any of these formats.

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Chapter 1Children-8Films:Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory(Canadian Learning Company, 2003, 37 minutes).Bandura presents his social cognitive theory. It includes the classic Bobo doll experiment andhis snake phobia work.B. F. Skinner: A Fresh Appraisal(Davidson Films, 1999, 41 minutes). This is a completereview and critique of the work of B. F. Skinner. This video puts to rest some myths, andcredits Skinner with contributions not often attributed to him.B.F. Skinner and Behavior Change(Insight Media, 1975, 45 minutes). An overview ofthe ethics and applications of modern behaviourism.Child Development(Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video provides an overviewof the study of child development, including the ideas of early philosophers such as Locke andRousseau and historically significant theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Bowlby, Watson, Gesell,and Piaget. The video also includes a review of research methodology utilized in the study ofchild development.Child Development: stepping stones(Coast Learning Systems, 2002, 30 minutes). Thisvideo discusses the context and influences in human development. It explores some of the majortheories from the study of psychology such as psychoanalytical theory, learning theory,behaviourism, and cognitive theory. The final segment introduces the life span perspective.Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock… and Beyond(Learning ZoneExpress, 2009).Theorists presented include Sigmund Freud, Maria Montessori, Arnold Gesell, LevVygotsky, Jean Piaget, Rudolf Dreikurs, Erik Erikson, Abraham Maslow, John Bowlby, B. F.Skinner, Benjamin Spock, Lawrence Kohlberg, T. Berry Brazelton, Diana Baumrind, and HowardGardner.The Child’s Mind(Insight Media, 1978, 30 minutes). This is a presentation theinformation-processing approach to understanding cognitive development.Classical and Operant Conditioning(Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 56minutes). The principles of behaviourism are explained, as are its important applications inclinical therapy, education and child-rearing.Cognitive Development(Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). This is an overview ofPiaget’s theory. It also reviews general aspects of cognition and language development.Discovering Psychology, Part 8: Learning(Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes).Classic footage of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner demonstrating the fundamentals of classicaland operant conditioning are included in this video.

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Chapter 1Children-9Erik H. Erikson: A Life’s Work(Insight Media, 1991, 38 minutes). Erik Eriksondiscusses his stage theory of psychosocial development.Everybody Rides the Carousel(Pyramid, 1975, 73 minutes in 3 parts). A carousel and itsriders are used as metaphors to describe Erikson’s eight stages.Freud: The Hidden Nature of Man(Learning Corporation of America, 1970,27 minutes).This video is an introduction to many basic Freudian concepts, including sexuality,consciousness, and a discussion of the id, ego, and the superego.Learning(Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Includes an interview with B.F. Skinnerand reviews some applications of classical and operant conditioning.The Learning Infant(Insight Media, 1988, 30 minutes). This includes a demonstrationof classical and operant conditioning with infants.Jean Piaget(Insight Media, 1969, Part I: 40 minutes; Part II: 40 minutes). Part I: Aninterview with Jean Piaget highlights his stages of development and other developmentalissues including motivation, learning, and perception. Part II: Piaget presents his views onFreud’s developmental concepts and his reactions to criticism and misapplication of his owntheory.Piaget’s Developmental Theory: An Overview(Davidson Films, 1989, 30 minutes). DavidElkind introduces Piaget’s theory and interviews children. The video includes cleardemonstrations of egocentric thought and conservation of liquid.Piaget on Piaget(Yale University, 1978, 45 minutes). Piaget discusses his theory ofcognitive development.Theories of Development(Insight Media, 1997, 29 minutes). This video provides anoverview of the cognitive, psychosexual, psychosocial, behaviourist, social-learning, andsociocultural theories of child development. The work of Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Gesell,Skinner and Vygotsky are featured.Theories of Human Development(Insight Media, 2002, 30 minutes). This videohighlights six major theories of human development: Freud’s psychodynamic theory, Erikson’spsychosocial theory, the integrated theory of Bowlby and Ainsworth, Bandura’s social learningtheory, Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s cognitive mediation theory.Transitions throughout the Lifespan: The Developing Person.(Magic Lantern, 2003, 28minutes). This is an introduction to the study of human development. The focus is on the

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Chapter 1Children-10impact of nature and nurture through the work of John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, JeanPiaget and Erik Erikson. It also includes Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of development.Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction(Canadian Learning Company, 1994,28 minutes). This is an in introduction to the life, vocabulary and concepts of Vygotsky, byusing early childhood and primary classrooms.

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Chapter 1Children-11Learning Objectives:LO9.Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predicted fromearly life.LO10.Understand how heredity and environment influence development.LO11.Specify what role children have in their own development.LO12.State how development in different domains is connected.Classroom Activities:♦Nature-Nurture Demonstration.To clarify the complicated interaction ofgenetics and environment, David Miller (1996) of the University of Connecticutrecommends the use of a cooking metaphor. With the use of pictures or actualingredients, Miller demonstrates that a basic ingredient (flour is used to representgenetic inheritance), when combined with a few additional ingredients and exposedto various “treatments” (e.g., frying versus baking), interacts to produce verydifferent outcomes (representing individual developmental differences). Millerdemonstrates the following cases:BasicIngredientAdditional IngredientsTreatmentDevelopmental OutcomeFLOURSALT + WATERFRYINGFLOUR TORTILLAFLOURSALT + WATERBAKINGMATZOFLOURSALT + WATER + YEASTBAKINGBREADFLOURSALT + BUTTER +COCOA + SUGARBAKINGBROWNIEMiller’s (1996) demonstration concludes with a discussion of various aspects of thenature-nurture issue, including:(a)the concept of developmental constraints (e.g., the limitations of ingredients andtreatments);(b)how genes do not code for specific developmental outcomes (e.g., flour alone does notproduce a specific food item);(c)the inseparability of genetic and environmental contributions to development (e.g.,What makes a brownie a brownie? The ingredients or the baking process?); and(d)the inability to identify specific, constituent elements of the developmental product(e.g., try as hard as she might, my daughter cannot extract the cocoa from the rest ofthe brownie).MODULE 1.2:THEMES IN CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

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Chapter 1Children-12Source:Miller, D. B. (1996). The nature-nurture issue: Lessons from the Pillsbury doughboy. In M. E.Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.),Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Active-Passive Debate.Choose a specific issue (e.g., sex-role, hobbies,personality characteristics, toy choices, etc.) and have the class debate the role thatchildren play in its development (active versus passive). Divide the class in half, or havestudents work in small groups, each assigned to either the active or passive perspective.To foster integrative thinking, ask the students to identify theorists who share theirperspective.Films:Contexts of Development(RMI Media Productions, 1993, 30 minutes). This videohighlights the interactive influences of biological, social, economic, and cultural factorson human development.Human Brain Development(Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). The DVDdemonstrates the interplay of genetic predispositions and experiences in thedevelopment of the brain after birth.Worlds of Childhood, Programs 5, 23, and 24(Great Plains National InstructionalTelevision Library, 1993, 30 minutes each). Program 5,Nature and Nurture Interwoven,includes a review of research on twin studies. Programs 23 and 24,Nature and Nurtureof Development (Parts I and II),explore the roles of biology, history, economics, family,peers, school, community, and culture in child development.

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Chapter 1Children-13INTERNET RESOURCES•www.cpa.caCanadian Psychological Association•www.apa.org•www.aps.orgAmerican Psychological Association and American Psychological Society addresses.•www.piaget.org•archivespiaget.chThese are the locations of the Jean Piaget Society and the Jean Piaget Archives.•psychclassics.yorku.caThis is an internet resource for historical information about psychology/theorists.•www.phac-aspc.gc.caPublic Health Agency of CanadaChildhood and Adolescence•www.kidshealth.orgGrowth and Development and Health related topics

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Chapter 1Children-14CASE STUDY: The Science of Child DevelopmentDungeon of Doom: Part I“He’s still playingDungeon of Doom? I’m getting worried about the amount oftime Matthew spends in front of that video game, Yannick.”“I don’t think Matthew is going to be harmed by it, Shani. It’s just a game. Hestill plays with his kindergarten friends, and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.”“But I worry that he’ll start to become a bully – make that a ‘Dungeon Master.’Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.”“That won’t be easy, Shani, but it’s probably a good idea. Besides, if Matthewspends less time playingDungeon of Doom,I can spend more time playingmyfavouritevideo game,Carnival of Carnage.”1.How can Sigmund Freud's theory of personality be used to explain the appeal ofvideo games likeDungeon of DoomorCarnival of Carnage?2.What kinds of concerns might Erik Erikson have about 6-year-old Matthew'shabitual video game playing?3.What suggestions would B. F. Skinner have for changing Matthew’s behaviour?4.Impose the contextual perspectives of Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner on the casedescribed above.

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Chapter 1Children-15HANDOUT 1-1Learning Objectives for Chapter 1:Child Development: Theories and ThemesLO1Describe Canada’s unique contribution to child development.LO2State the major tenets of the biological perspective.LO3Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.LO4Identify the focus of learning theories.LO5Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes inchildren's thinking.LO6Name the main points of the contextual approach.LO7Explain recent approaches to the study of child development.LO8Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology.LO9Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predictedfrom early life.LO10Understand how heredity and environment influence development.LO11Specify what role children have in their own development.LO12State how development in different domains is connected.

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Chapter 1Children-16HANDOUT 1-2The First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development inErikson’s TheoryDirections: What would Erikson suggest for parents who are raising children that fit into thefollowing four stages?PsychosocialStageAgeChallengeEriksonian Parenting TipsBasic trust vs.MistrustBirth to 1 yearTo develop asense that theworld is safe; a“good place.”Autonomy vs.Shame & Doubt1 to 3 yearsTo realize thatone is anindependentperson who canmake decisions.Initiative vs.Guilt3 to 6 yearsTo develop theability to try newthings and tohandle failure.Industry vs.Inferiority6 years toadolescenceTo learn basicskills and towork withothers.

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Chapter 1Children-17HANDOUT 1-3Identifying Positive and Negative ReinforcementDirections:In each of the following scenarios, identify the type(s) of reinforcement present, as well as who isbeing reinforced. (Note: Some scenarios involve both positive and negative reinforcement.)1.Andrew will not take his asthma medication daily, as his doctor has prescribed.Andrew’s parents have been nagging him, telling him that he may have to be rushedto the hospital if he doesn’t take the medicine as directed.2.Rowena was given a sticker every time she remembered to brush her teeth.3.Julio’s parents went to great lengths to provide him with hot dogs and cheese friessince he would have serious temper tantrums if given any other type of food.4.Angela is a third-grader in Mr. Robertson’s class. Mr. Robertson is giving eachchild work materials individually. As Mr. Robertson turns to each child, Angelamakes grunting noises and yells, “teacher, teacher – me next!” On each occasion, Mr.Robertson turns to Angela and says, “Shhh, wait your turn.”5.At supper, Taeyung has to eat a little bit of everything prepared, including thedreaded vegetables. If he picks a fight with his little sister, he is immediately sent tohis room with his plate. Taeyung has been sent to his room four times in the pastweek.

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Chapter 1Children-18HANDOUT 1-4Your Developmental EcologyDirections:Think of yourself at a particular time in your childhood (e.g., age 12). Using UrieBronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, reflect on the following influences on your development:MicrosystemYour descriptions and reflections:your familyyour school and teacheryour peer groupthe media (favourite TV shows, books, movies,video games, etc.)your neighbourhood or surrounding communityMesosystemhow your parents interacted with your peershow your parents interacted with your schoolwhether your parents helped with school workhow your community supported your school oractivities (e.g., sports)Exosystemyour parents’ jobsvacations you tookwhether there was a divorce in the familyMacrosystemyour ethnic heritageyour religious beliefswhether you lived in an urban or rural settingyour social class (e.g., lower, middle, upper)what was going on in the world at the time(e.g., who was president, wars or conflicts,social movements, trends or fads, etc.)Source:Horton, S. & Preisser, G. (1997).Instructor’s resource manual for development across thelifespan.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Chapter 1Children-19HANDOUT 1-5 AWho Said That?Directions: Match the theorist or theoretical perspective to the statement that bestrepresents their viewpoint. Explain your choice.B. F. SkinnerSigmund FreudAlbert BanduraEcological TheoryInformation-Processing TheoryErik EriksonJohn LockeEvolutionary TheoryArnold GesellDevelopmental PsychopathologyVygotsky1.In everyday life, unconscious needs are struggling for expression; behaviour anddevelopment is the product of efforts to satisfy needs.2.Humans are limited in how much information they can process at any given time, but theselimits increase as one develops.3.Development is the product of one’s biological plan; experience matters little.4.Presents an understanding of how abnormal development occurs.5.Focused on ways that adults convey to children the beliefs, customs, and skills of theirculture6.People learn from observing others.7.Development involves facing a sequence of crises or challenges. How earlier crises areresolved influences later development.8.Thought develops in four qualitatively different stages, ranging from exploring throughthe senses and motor abilities to abstract thinking.9.Behaviours and characteristics are shaped for survival.10.One’s development is influenced by the reinforcements and punishments one receives.11.The human infant is a blank slate; experiences mould and shape it into a distinct individual.

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Chapter 1Children-20HANDOUT 1-5 BWho Do You Agree With?Read the following story:Melissa is three years old and starting her first day of preschool. She cries when hermother leaves. She continues to do this every day and after two weeks the teachers andthe parents sit down to figure out how to help Melissa.Teacher 1 says, “Ignore this behaviour, just drop her off, say “goodbye” and wewill settle her with an activity.”Teacher 2 says, “Melissa needs more information. Let’s tell her what ishappening when it happens and then she will know that after outside time herparents come to pick her up.”Teacher 3 says, “Melissa needs some nurturing. We should assign a teacher toher so she can attach and feel bonded to one of us.”Choose the statement that you agree with most, even though you might agree withall of them choose one that feels most right to you. There is no wrong answer.Compare the responseyou have chosen to the theoretical perspectives. Which one doyou agree the most?

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Chapter 1Children-21HANDOUT 1-6Advice ColumnsDirections:Indicate below how each theorist would explain these challenges and recommend how thetheorist might respond to them.B.F. SkinnerSigmund FreudAtai (6 years old) getsupset when her fatherpays attention to heryounger brother. Sheinsists on playing videogames and other two-player games with herfather in an attempt toexclude her brother.Erik EriksonArnold GesellLuka (2.5 years old)insists on bathing anddressing himself eventhough he doesn’t doeither very well.Albert BanduraJean PiagetEmily and Ethan (5-year-old twins) messyeaters. After a mealthere is always a messon the table, the floor,and themselves.

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Chapter 2Children–1Chapter 2Research in Child DevelopmentCHAPTER OVERVIEWMODULE SUPPLEMENTSModule 2.1: DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCHLearning ObjectivesKey TermsClassroom ActivitiesFilmsModule 2.2: CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY POLICYLearning ObjectivesKey TermsClassroom ActivitiesFilmsINTERNET RESOURCESCASE STUDYHANDOUTS

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Chapter 2Children–2CHAPTER OVERVIEWI.MODULE 2.1: DOING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCHA.Measurement in Child Development Research1.Systematic Observationa.Naturalistic Observationb.Variables (Maria Montessori)c.Structured Observation (Mary Ainsworth)2.Sampling Behaviour with Tasksa.Ecological Validity3.Self Reportsa.Demand Characteristicsb.Reliability and Validityc.Convergent and Divergent Validity4.Representative Samplinga.Populationb.Samplec.Each Canadian region has different population demographicsB.General Designs for Research1.Correlational Studiesa.Correlational Designb.Correlation Coefficient (r)2.Experimental Studiesa.Experimentb.Independent Variablec.Dependent Variabled.Mediator Variablee.Field ExperimentC.Methods for Studying Development1.Longitudinal Studies (includingmicrogenetic studies)2.Sequential Studies (includingcohort effects, practice effect andattrition)3.Cross-sectional Studies4.Making Children’s Lives Better: “ Longitudinal Research on YoungPeople in Canada”5.Table 2-2 Summary Table of Designs Used in Child DevelopmentResearchD.Ethical Responsibilities1.Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists2.Minimize risks to research participants3.Describe the research to potential participants so they can determineif they wish to participate

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Chapter 2Children–34.Avoid deception; if participants must be deceived, provide a thoroughexplanation of the true nature of the research as soon as possible.5.Keep results anonymous or confidential6.Table 2-3 Principles of the Canadian Code of Ethics for PsychologistsE.Communicating Research ResultsII.MODULE 2.2: CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILYPOLICYA.Background and Definition1.Family Policy2.Evidence-based PracticesB.Ways to Influence Social Policy1.Build Understanding of Children and Their Development2.Serve as an Advocate for Children (Child Find)3.Evaluate Policies and Programs4.Develop a Model ProgramC.An Emphasis on Policy Implications Improves Research1.Quasi-experimental DesignMODULE SUPPLEMENTSLearning Objectives:1.Discuss how scientists measure topics of interest in children’s development.2.List what general research designs are used in child-development researchand note which designs are unique to child-development research.3.Describe common methods for studying development.4.Detail what ethical procedures researchers must follow.5.Understand how researchers communicate results to other scientists.(See Handout 2-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)MODULE 2.1:DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

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Chapter 2Children–4Key Terms:systematic observationnaturalistic observationvariablesstructured observationecological validityself reportsdemand characteristicsreliabilityvalidityconvergent validitydivergent validitypopulationsamplecorrelational studycorrelation coefficient(r)P-Valuedescriptive statisticsinferential statisticsexperimentindependent variabledependent variablemediator variablefield experimentlongitudinal studymicrogenetic studysequential designcohort effectpractice effectattritioncross-sectional studyClassroom Activities:♦“Naturalistic Observation? That’s So Simple.”This is usually theinitial reaction voiced by students when naturalistic observation is discussed as aresearch tool. Ask the class to design a study utilizing naturalistic observation.Invite the class to generate severalhypotheses, then vote on the one they wouldlike to pursue. Once the hypothesis is chosen, we proceed to specifyandoperationalize variablesof interest. The class then discusses some oftheproceduralaspects of such a study, including the location, observationalstrategies, and concerns aboutconfounding variables. This can be turned into aclass project, students actually conduct the study they designed (after receivingEthical Review Board approval).♦Understanding Correlations.To illustrate the concept that correlationdoes not equal causation, have the class generate examples of variables that co-vary, and discuss why causal relationships between them cannot be determined.Further, to introduce the concept of spurious correlations, ask the class to think ofvariables that are highly correlated, but meaningless (e.g., birds migrate southwhen footballs appear in neighbourhoods).♦“Results of a Recent Study Indicate that People Rarely Questionthe Results of Recent Studies.”For an advanced developmental course: Askyour students to locate a study on some aspect of development that is of interestto them and bring a copy of the Method section to class. In small groups, havethe students engage in critical reviews of the articles that they found, focusing

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Chapter 2Children–5on sample representativeness and the reliability and validity of the measures orprocedures used. Since students often ignore the method section of journalarticles, this exercise should render this section less threatening while honingtheir critical thinking skills.For an introductory developmental course: Ask your students to find researchresults that have been reported in the mass (print) media, make copies of the stories,and bring them to class. Ask for some volunteers to summarize their stories, readingverbatim the section reporting the research results. Then guide the class through adiscussion of how to critically interpret the reported results. This exercise producesthe same result as the one described above for advanced courses: Students willdevelop sharper critical thinking skills.♦Designing an Experiment.In small groups, have your students design anexperiment. Handout 2-3 will guide them through the process of stating a hypothesis,identifying and operationalizing variables, and considering a variety ofmethodological and ethical issues.♦Longitudinal versus Cross-sectional Designs.Before the class sessionon developmental research methods, assign half of your students a longitudinalstudy to read and half a cross-sectional study to read on the same topic. In class,have the students compare and contrast the results obtained with thedifferent research designs. Also, have your students debate the advantagesand disadvantages of each design.♦Evaluating Developmental Research Methods.As a comprehensivereview of the research method module in the chapter, ask your students tocomplete Handout 2-4, either in class or as a homework assignment.♦Where Did They Go Wrong?Present your students with brief examplesof unethical research practices and ask them to identify the violations present.Handout 2-5 includes some research situations that students can assess. Thishandout works well either as an in-class small group exercise or as a homeworkassignment.♦Guest Speaker: Developmental Researchers.Invite faculty and orgraduate students from your institution to talk about their research. Thisgives students an opportunity to learn about the Developmental Psychologyresearch occurring around them as well as to participate as volunteers in aresearch lab.

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Chapter 2Children–6Films:Observation(Magna Systems, 2003, 27 minutes). The four areas ofdevelopment: physical, cognitive, language and social – emotional, the students areguided through the sequences of naturalistic observation of infants, toddlers andpreschoolers.My Brother’s Keeper—Ethics in America 11(Annenberg Learner, 2000, 57minutes). Families and individuals struggle with college applications, promotions atwork, the actions of their neighbors, and try to determine what to do when importantvalues about questions of fairness, loyalty and ethics.A Better Brain: The Ethics of Neuro-Enhancement—Ethics in America II(Annenberg Learner 2007 57 minutes) New drugs have found a place in the universitysetting where students find that pharmaceuticals help them study better, work fasterand remember much more. By enhancing their performance this way, are theycheating? Are they possibly endangering themselves?Non-Experimental Research Methods(Shortcuts TV, 16 minutes) Using a rangeof classic and contemporary studies, this film illustrates and evaluates the strengths,weaknesses, and limitations of three different types of non-experimental methods usedby psychologists to study social behavior: Case Studies, Naturalistic Observation andSelf-Report Methods.Research Methods (Magic Lantern Communications Ltd., 2001, 30 minutes).An overview of observational and descriptive research is used to illustrate how thescientific method is used to study the relationship between violent video games andaggression.The Scientific Method(Insight Media, 2001, 20 minutes). This video shows howto plan an experiment and obtain and analyze evidence. It considers the implications ofscientific research, emphasizes the importance of its dissemination, and shows howscientific controversies arise. The video also considers the limitations of science and thevalue of critical thinking.Understanding Research(Magic Lantern Communications Ltd., 2001, 27minutes). This is an examination of the scientific method and the ways to collect andanalyze data.Understanding Psychology: Experimental Methods in Psychology(InsightMedia, 2004, 37 minutes). This DVD is an examination of attractiveness research. Itexamines variables that affect a person’s perception of others and considers whetherthat perception can be manipulated. The DVD questions whether laboratory and fieldexperiments yield the same results.

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Chapter 2Children–7Understanding Psychology: Non-Experimental Research Methods(InsightMedia, 2006, 32 minutes). Researchers in this DVD explain their methodologies, andexpert analyses of young people’s cell phone use. It explores the use of questionnaires,surveys, interviews, and naturalistic observations.

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Chapter 2Children–8Learning Objectives:6.Describe why child-development researchers have recently become moreinvolved in designing social policy.7.State how child-development researchers influence family policy.8.Discuss how concern for family policy has improved child-developmentresearch.Key Terms:family policyevidence-based practicesquasi-experimental designClassroom Activities:♦Guest Speaker: Child Advocate.Invite a speaker from any local childadvocacy group and ask that speaker to talk with your class about issues that havebeen informed and shaped by developmental research. This expert can discuss howdevelopmental research can be translated into law or public policy.♦Guest Speaker: Lawyer Specializing in Divorce Mediation and CustodyArrangements.Invite a family lawyer who is well-informed about developmentalresearch pertaining to the impact of divorce on children and how various custodyarrangements influence the development of children. Invite students to preparequestions in advance that they would like to ask about family law.♦Petitioning Policymakers.This exercise could be developed into a majorproject to be completed in stages as the course progresses. Divide your students intogroups (or the class can work together as one group if it is a small class) and askeach group to identify a significant developmental issue that has family policyimplications (e.g., adolescent substance use and abuse, child abuse, teen sexualityand pregnancy, divorce and custody arrangements, poverty and public assistanceprograms, etc.). Each group should thoroughly investigate the developmentalresearch available on the issue, then contact a person at the local, county,MODULE 2.2: CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AND FAMILY POLICY

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