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Sociology - Race and Ethnicity

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    Study Guide Sociology – Race and Ethnicity 1. Minorities In sociology, the word minority does not simply mean a group with fewer people. Instead, it refers to racial or ethnic groups that are treated unfairly or have fewer advantages in a society . A group can even be large in number and still be considered a minority if it lacks power or equal opportunities. For example, people with green eyes are fewer in number, but they are not considered a minority in the sociological sense because they are not socially disadvantaged. 1.1 Key Features of Minority Groups Minority groups usually share several important characteristics: 1. Strong Group Identity Members of minority groups often feel a sense of belonging with one another. This shared identity comes from common experiences, culture, history, or traditions. 2. Social Separation Minority groups may feel separated or isolated from the rest of society. This separation can be social, cultural, or economic. 3 . Disadvantage Compared to the Majority Minorities often face disadvantages when compared to the dominant or majority group. These disadvantages can include fewer economic opportunities, lower social status, or limited access to power. It is important to note that not all minority members experience all of these factors equally . Some individuals are able to move beyond what sociologists call their master status — the social identity most strongly linked to race or ethnicity.

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    Study Guide 1.2 Why Minority Status Often Remains Fixed Even when individuals from minority groups achieve personal success, their minority status often remains unchanged . Many minority groups tend to live in specific regions, cities, or neighborhoods — often areas with fewer resources and higher poverty levels. Because of this, race and ethnicity are closely connected to inequality in: • Power • Wealth • Prestige These inequalities can sometimes create tension or conflict between different groups in society. 1.3 Marriage and Cultural Preservation To protect their culture and traditions, many minority groups prefer endogamy , which means marrying within the group. Marriage outside the group — called intermarriage — is not always accepted by either the minority or majority group. By limiting intermarriage, minority groups reduce the chances of assimilation , which is the gradual process of adopting the dominant culture’s values and practices. 2. Prejudice and Discrimination Prejudice and discrimination have existed throughout human history and continue to affect societies today. Although the two terms are related, they are not the same. Prejudice refers to rigid, irrational attitudes or opinions that one group holds about another. These beliefs are usually formed in advance and are difficult to change. People can hold prejudices without ever acting on them. Discrimination , on the other hand, involves actions or behaviors . It happens when people treat others unfairly because of their group membership. Discrimination often grows out of negative prejudice, but not all prejudiced people discriminate. People who discriminate usually do so to protect their own advantages. By denying opportunities to others, they try to hold on to jobs, power, or social status they believe should belong only to them.

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    Study Guide 2.1 Prejudice in History Sadly, prejudice against racial and ethnic minorities continues to exist, even in modern, educated societies. One of the most well - known and tragic examples is the long history of discrimination against Jewish people. For thousands of years, Jews have faced mistreatment and persecution. The most extreme example occurred during World War II , when the Nazi regime attempted to eliminate the Jewish population in Europe. Millions of Jews were killed in German concentration camps in the name of Nazi beliefs about “racial purity.” This event is known as genocide , meaning the systematic killing of an entire group of people. Events like this — and many others throughout history — have led sociologists to closely study race, ethnicity, prejudice, and discrimination. 2.2 Where Does Prejudice Come From? Sociologists and psychologists have identified several emotional and social factors that help explain why prejudice develops. Emotional Factors and Scapegoating Some prejudice comes from unconscious feelings of insecurity or inadequacy. To cope with these feelings, people may project their fears onto a weaker group. These groups become scapegoats — people who are unfairly blamed for problems they did not cause. Blaming a target group can reduce anxiety by simplifying complex problems. Instead of facing difficult realities, people may think, “Those people are the reason for my problems.” Research shows that prejudice is strongly connected to low self - esteem . By looking down on others, people may temporarily feel more powerful or important. 2.3 Social Factors That Encourage Prejudice In addition to emotional causes, several social factors can increase prejudice and discrimination. 1. Socialization Many prejudices are learned early in life. Parents may pass biased beliefs to their children, often without realizing it. The media also plays a powerful role. Television, movies, and advertisements

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    Study Guide sometimes reinforce negative stereotypes about ethnic minorities, women, LGBTQ+ individuals, people with disabilities, and the elderly. 2. Pressure to Conform Prejudiced views can bring approval from family members or peers. As a result, rejecting these views may lead to social rejection. The pressure to fit in with friends, family, or coworkers can be very strong. 3. Economic Competition Prejudice often increases when groups compete for jobs or resources. During times of economic hardship or social stress, people may blame other groups for their struggles. Studies show that prejudice tends to rise sharply during these periods. 4. The Authoritarian Personality Some individuals develop what sociologists call an authoritarian personality . These people tend to think in rigid categories, strongly obey authority figures, and reject those they see as inferior. They often hold intolerant views about race, religion, and sexuality. This personality type may develop in childhood, especially in homes with strict, unloving parents. As adults, these individuals may control their fears and anxieties through strict rules and stereotypes. 5. Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge other cultures using the standards of one’s own culture. It often involves viewing one’s own culture as superior and being suspicious of outsiders. While most cultures show some ethnocentrism, it commonly leads to stereotypes and misunderstandings. 6. Group Closure Group closure happens when groups create clear boundaries to keep others out. One example is refusing to marry outside one’s ethnic or social group. This practice helps maintain group identity but can also reinforce prejudice.

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    Study Guide 7. Conflict Theory According to conflict theory , powerful groups work to protect their wealth, status, and resources. To avoid competition, they may limit opportunities for minority groups. In extreme cases, this can lead to violence. In response, disadvantaged groups may also resort to violence to imp rove their conditions. 2.4 Attempts to Reduce Prejudice Over the years, sociologists have explored many ways to reduce prejudice and conflict between groups. The Self - Esteem Hypothesis This theory suggests that improving education and self - esteem will reduce prejudice. However, research shows that higher self - esteem alone does not eliminate biased attitudes. The Contact Hypothesis According to this idea, prejudice decreases when people from different groups interact and learn about each other’s shared experiences. While contact can help, it does not always lead to positive outcomes. The Cooperation Hypothesis This theory argues that groups must work together toward common goals. Cooperation can reduce hostility, but it is often too brief or limited to overcome deep - rooted influences. The Legal Hypothesis Laws that ban discrimination can reduce unfair behavior. Legal changes have led to important progress, such as women gaining the right to vote and racial integration in public spaces. However, laws do not automatically change attitudes and can sometimes increase resentment. 2.5 Why Prejudice Is So Hard to Eliminate Research shows that individual - level solutions alone are not enough . Even people who are not usually prejudiced can develop strong biases during times of war or economic competition. Efforts such as school desegregation have also faced challenges. In many cases, integrated schools have seen students form ethnic cliques or gangs, sometimes leading to conflict rather than unity.

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