Sociology - Sex and Gender - Quick Guides

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Study GuideSociology–Sex and Gender1. Sexism in Higher Education1.1 A Brief Look at the PastFor a long time, women did not have the same chances as men to attend college or university. Untilthe 1960s, most women were excluded fromhigher education, especially from professional schoolsand graduate programs like law or medicine. The more well-known or prestigious the program, theharder it was for women to gain access.Change began when the women’s movement pushed for equal rights in education. Their efforts led toimportant laws that made gender discrimination illegal in schools and universities.1.2 Title IX and Equal OpportunityOne of the most important laws passed wasTitle IX. This law requires educational institutions to treatstudents fairly, regardless of gender. Under Title IX, schools must remove discrimination from:•Admissions and financial aid•Gender-segregated classes and sports programs•Hiring practices for administrators, faculty, and staffBecause of TitleIX, women gained much greater access to colleges and universities across thecountry.1.3 Women in College TodayToday, women are actually more likely than men to attend college and earn undergraduate ormaster’s degrees. Many women choose majors in the liberal arts, which often do not lead directly tohigh-paying jobs. However, despite higher enrollment at lower degree levels, women are still lesslikely than men to earn advanced degrees, such as doctorates or professional degrees.

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Study Guide1.4 Ongoing Sexism in AcademiaSexism has not completely disappeared from higher education. It still exists in universityadministration and among faculty. Research shows that women are:•Less likely to be hired•Less likely to be promoted•Less likely to receive tenureIn addition, women professors typically earn less money than men. This pay gap exists even thoughwomen teach just as effectively, conduct research, and bring in research grants at the same level astheir male colleagues.2.Sexism in the Workplace2.1How Education and Work Are ConnectedSexism in the workplace is closely linked to sexism in education. When women are expected to stayat home instead of pursuing careers, they often miss out on important educational opportunities.Without equal access to education, women may find it harder to compete with men for jobs. Evenwhen women do get hired, they may be seen as less prepared, which can lead to lower wages.2.2More Women at Work—But Not Equal TreatmentOver the past several decades, many more women have joined the workforce in the United States.After World War II, around 1947, only about 30 percent of women worked outside the home. By thebeginning of the 21st century, that number had grown to well over50 percent. Some estimates evenreach 75 percent when part-time jobs are included.Despite this progress, women still do not receive equal treatment at work. Most women areconcentrated in lower-paying and lower-status jobs. For example, women make up only about 25percent of upper-level managers in large corporations. Even in major companies where women mayrepresent half of all employees, only about 5 percent or fewer hold top leadership positions.

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Study Guide2.3Job Segregation by GenderWomen are less likely to work in high-status, high-paying professions such as university teaching,law, engineering, and medicine. Instead, they are more often found inlower-paying fields like publicschool teaching, nursing, and secretarial work.Many of these traditionally female jobs are sometimes called“women’s ghettos.”In these roles,women often work under men. For instance, secretaries—who are usually women—are supervised byexecutives, who are more likely to be men. Similarly, paralegals, who are often women, typically workunder male lawyers.2.4The Gender Pay GapEven when women do the same jobs as men, they usually earn less money. This happens despitewomen often having equal or even better education, training, and skills. On average, women earnabout 60 percent or less of what men make in similar positions.Sociologists offer several explanations for this pay gap. One reason is that many women take time offfrom work to have and raise children, which can interrupt their careers. In the United States, womenstill carry most of the responsibility for child-rearing. Because of this, married women with children aremore likely to leave their jobs than single women or women without children.Another common belief is that men are the main “breadwinners” for their families, so they should bepaid more. However, regardless of the reasons, paying women less than men for equally demandingwork is a clear form of discrimination.3. Sexism in Politics3.1 Women as Voters vs. Women in OfficeToday, women make up more than half of all voters. With such strong numbers, it might seem likewomen would easily dominate political leadership. However, this has not happened. Sociologistsexplain that many women have been hesitant to enter politics. Some view politics as too corrupt or asa “good old boy” system that favors men and shuts women out.

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Study Guide3.2 Double Standards for Women PoliticiansWomen who do choose to run for office often face unfair and conflicting expectations. This issometimes described as a“damned-if-you-do-or-don’t”situation. If a woman focuses on herpolitical career, she may be criticized for not being attentive enough as a wife or mother. On the otherhand, if she emphasizes her family life, she may be seen as not serious enough about public service.Male politicians rarely face this kind of scrutiny.3.3 Progress, but Limited RepresentationMen still control most political parties, but more women are slowly reaching high political offices. Evenso, women hold only about 5 percent of all political positions, which shows how unbalanced politicalrepresentation remains.Since the 1990s, more women have run for positions in the Senate, the House of Representatives,and state governor offices. Women are now more encouraged to run, especially as many long-servingmale politicians leave office. In some cases, women candidatesare seen as more trustworthy,particularly when they run against opponents with poor reputations.Women candidates also tend to attract voters who care deeply about issues such as:•Child welfare•National health care•Environmentalprotection•Abortion rights3.4 Women’s Growing Influence as VotersWhile women may still be underrepresented in office, their influence as voters has grown significantly.Since the 1980s, women have voted at higher rates than men. Women are alsomore likely to supportliberal candidates who favor social programs. Because of this, women have the power to stronglyshape election results and public policy.

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Study Guide4. Gender and Homosexuality4.1 Understanding Sexual OrientationSexual orientation is closely connected to the topic of gender. It refers to a person’s sexual, romantic,emotional, and affectionate attraction to others. People may be attracted to those of the opposite sex,the same sex, or both.•Heterosexual (or “straight”)individuals are attracted to people of the opposite sex.•Homosexualindividuals are attracted to people of the same sex. Men are often calledgay,and women are often calledlesbian.•Bisexual (or “bi”)individuals are attracted to people of both sexes.These terms help describe patterns of attraction, not behavior.4.2 Why Sociologists Use the Term “Sexual Orientation”Today, most sociologists prefer the termsexual orientationinstead ofsexual preference. The word“preference” suggests that people choose who they are attracted to. However, many researchersbelieve that sexual attraction is not a conscious choice. Using the term “sexual orientation” reflectsthis understanding more accurately.4.3 Kinsey’s Research and a New Way of ThinkingIn the 1940s and 1950s, researcherAlfred Kinseyand his team studied the sexual behavior ofAmericans. Their findings changed how experts understood sexual orientation. Before Kinsey’s work,most people believed individuals were either heterosexual or homosexual, with no middle ground.Kinsey discovered that sexual orientation exists along acontinuum, rather than in strict categories.Many people reported having at least some attraction to members of the same sex, even if they neveracted on those feelings. This showed that attraction is more complex than previously thought.

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Study Guide4.4A Broader Understanding of SexualityKinsey and his colleagues helped introduce the idea that heterosexuality, homosexuality, andbisexuality are different but connected forms of sexual orientation. Their research encouraged a moreflexible and realistic understanding of human sexuality—one that recognizes variation and complexityrather than rigid labels.5. Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality5.1 Why Accurate Numbers Are Hard to FindGetting exact numbers on how many people are homosexual or bisexual is difficult. Many people feeluncomfortable answering questions about their sexual orientation. This makes surveys less precise.Another challenge is that only a small portion of gay andlesbian individuals openly share their sexualorientation with family and friends. Some estimates suggest that as few as 10 percent have officially“come out of the closet.”Those who do not come out may“stay in the closet”and present themselves as heterosexual, apractice known aspassing. For people who want support during this process, there are supportgroups and events such asNational Coming Out Day, which is celebrated every year on October11.5.2 Estimates of Homosexuality in the United StatesCurrent estimates suggest that about4 percent of menand1 to 2 percent of womenin the UnitedStates identify as homosexual. TheCenters for Disease Control (CDC)estimates thatapproximately2.5 million U.S. menare exclusively homosexual. This equals about1 percent of thetotal U.S. population, which is estimated at 250 million.In addition, the CDC estimates thatanother 2.5 to 7.5 million menengage in occasionalhomosexual relationships, even if they do not identify as gay.5.3 Research on Same-Sex ExperiencesResearch byAlfred Kinseyfound that same-sex experiences are more common than many peopleassume. His studies showed that:

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