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Sociology - The Sociological Perspective

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    Study Guide Sociology – The Sociological Perspective 1. Sociology in America 1.1 How Sociology Came to the United States Sociology came to the United States from Europe around the beginning of the 20th century. Early American sociologists wanted to understand the major social problems of their time. These problems included crime, racial inequality, and economic hardship. Although American sociologists shared concerns with European thinkers, their approach was different. European sociologists focused more on creating large theories about how society works. American sociologists preferred practical solutions to specific prob lems, such as child labor and unsafe working conditions. 1.2 Jane Addams and Hull House One of the most important figures in early American sociology was Jane Addams (1860 – 1935). She is considered a founder of American sociology and strongly believed that research should be used to improve people’s lives. Jane Addams established Hull House in Chicago. Hull House was both a community center and a place for sociological research. Many of the sociologists who worked there were women. They believed in using sociological knowledge to solve real social problems. The sociologists at Hull House studied issues such as unfair labor practices, child labor, worker exploitation, poverty, juvenile delinquency, and discrimination against women, minorities, and the elderly. They used a research method called mapping. This method involved collecting data like age, gender, and income level, placing the information on maps, and studying patterns. Mapping helped them see where social problems were most serious.

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    Study Guide After identifying problems, they took action. They created social policies, organized community members, and pressured political leaders to make changes. Jane Addams played a major role in creating government safety and health standards. She also helped es tablish important programs such as Social Security, Workers’ Compensation, and the Children’s Bureau. In 1931, she received the Nobel Peace Prize for her work. 1.3 Sociology as Both an Applied and a Basic Science For the first 40 years of the 20th century, most American sociologists focused on applied sociology. This means they used sociological knowledge to solve real social problems and support social reform. Later, sociologists became more interested in developing general theories about society. During this time, sociology was viewed as a basic social science, meaning knowledge was pursued for its own sake. With this change came the idea that sociology should be objective and free from personal values or political goals. Between 1940 and 1960, sociologists developed more advanced scientific research methods to study social behavior and societies. 1.4 A Return to Practical Solutions In the 1960s, many people began to question the idea that sociology should be completely value - free. Social problems such as racial conflict, gender inequality, poverty, and opposition to the Vietnam War became major public concerns. Because of this, sociology once again focused on finding practical solutions. The field returned to its applied roots, using research to help solve real - world problems. 1.5 Sociology Today At the start of the 21st century, sociology in America combines both approaches. It is both applied and basic, and it includes both objective research and subjective understanding. Sociology has also expanded into many specialties. These include industrial sociology, which applies sociology to business and workplace issues; ethnomethodology, which studies everyday common

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    Study Guide sense behavior; and clinical sociology, which focuses on solving human problems and creating social change. Today, there are about 20,000 sociologists working in the United States. 2. Three Major Perspectives in Sociology Sociologists study society in many different ways. Sometimes they focus on small, everyday interactions between people. This is called the micro level of analysis . At other times, they look at large social patterns and institutions, such as the economy or government. This is known as the macro level of analysis . Early European sociologists developed broad ideas about how society works. Their ideas became the foundation for modern sociological theories. These theories, also called theoretical perspectives or paradigms , give sociologists a general way of thinking about society and help guide the kinds of questions they ask. Today, sociologists mainly use three major theoretical perspectives :

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    Study Guide Each perspective explains society and human behavior in a different way. Together, they help sociologists understand how society influences people and how people influence society. 2.1 The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective The symbolic interactionist perspective , often called symbolic interactionism, focuses on everyday life. It looks at how people use symbols, what those symbols mean, and how people interact with one another. This perspective is based on the idea that people act according to how they interpret the world around them. Although this idea can be traced back to Max Weber, the American philosopher George H. Mead (1863 – 1931) introduced symbolic interactionism to American sociology in the 1920s. Symbolic interactionists believe that people give meaning to symbols and then behave based on those meanings. Words are one of the most important symbols. During a conversation, words mean something to the speaker and, ideally, the same thing to the listen er. However, meanings are not fixed. They depend on interpretation. Because of this, misunderstandings can easily occur. Symbols are not limited to words. Anything that represents something else can be a symbol. For example, written musical notes are symbols. The marks on a page stand for sounds that create music when played. Symbolic interactionists carefully observe how people act and try to understand the meanings individuals attach to their actions and to the symbols used by others. This perspective can be applied to marriage in American society. Marriage includes many symbols, such as wedding rings, vows, a white wedding dress, a wedding cake, flowers, music, and a religious ceremony. Society gives general meanings to these symbols, but individuals may interpret them differently. For example, one partner may see a wedding ring as a symbol of endless love, while the other may view it as an unnecessary expense. Differences in interpretation can lead to misunderstandings. Critics argue that symbolic interactionism focuses too much on small details and ignores the larger picture of society. By concentrating on individual interactions, it may overlook powerful social institutions and forces that shape people’s behavior.

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    Study Guide 2.2 The Functionalist Perspective The functionalist perspective , also called functionalism, views society as a system made up of interconnected parts. Each part of society plays a role in keeping the whole system working smoothly. For example, families depend on schools to educate children. Schools prepare children to become responsible workers and citizens. These citizens then pay taxes, which help support the government. In this way, families, schools, and the government all depen d on one another. When society functions well, it produces order, stability, and productivity. When problems arise, society adjusts. During an economic recession, for instance, unemployment may increase. As a result, social programs may be reduced, schools may cut back on a ctivities, and families may spend less money. Over time, society adapts and forms a new balance. Functionalists believe society is held together by social consensus , meaning that members of society agree on shared values and goals and work together for the good of the whole. Sociologist Emile Durkheim described two types of social cohesion: • Mechanical solidarity occurs when people share similar values, beliefs, and jobs. This is common in simple, traditional societies, such as farming communities. Amish society is an example. • Organic solidarity occurs when people are different but depend on one another because they perform specialized jobs. This is common in complex, industrial societies, such as large modern cities. Functionalism was especially popular in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s. One important functionalist was Robert Merton , who explained that social actions can have two kinds of functions. Manifest functions are intended and obvious. Latent functions are unintended and not obvious. For example, the manifest function of attending a religious service is worship, but a latent function might be building friendships or learning social values. Functionalism has been criticized for ignoring negative effects of social institutions, such as the problems caused by divorce. Critics also argue that functionalism supports the status quo and discourages people from challenging inequality or pushing for social change.

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