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Class Notes for Understanding Movies, 14th Edition

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    Instructor Resource Manual for Understanding Movies Fourteenth Edition Louis Giannetti

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    iii Preface If I had but one film to choose for a film analysis course, I would choose either Citizen Kane or Amadeus . Amadeus is so rich aesthetically, dramatically, and intellectually that it can support sustained analytical attention. Like Citizen Kane, Amadeus provides superior material for analysis in concert with each chapter of Understanding Movies . Amadeus is a good film to study early in the course so that it can be used as a reference film for the rest of the semester. Use of a reference film facilitates class discussion, offers a touchstone for comparison to other films, and presents a suitable alternative to Citizen Kane for synthesis exercises and assignments. Any film can be selected as a course reference film, but Amadeus vibrates with creativity in every aspect of the cinema, making the film an excellent selection. Supplemental resources for this text: www.imdb.com This is the Internet Movie Database website. It is one of the world ’s largest compilations of film titles, viewer reviews, and movie production information. www.filmsite.org Another comprehensive website that provides detailed summaries of many films in many genres. www.rottentomatoes.com This website tracks film releases, box office grosses, and other pertinent information, including professional critic reviews. It is highly recommended. www.metacritic.com/film/ Another website along the lines of Rotten Tomatoes. www.rogerebert.com The home of one of the most popular film critics of modern times, Roger Ebert. www.commonsensemedia.org This website provides reviews and recommendations of films, especially for parents with young children. The critical reviews here are not geared toward an audience that seeks out journalistic and theoretical criticism. www.worldbest.com/movies.htm A website that provides links to the websites listed above as well as many others that review film and follow Hollywood news and information.

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    iv Table of Contents Preface ...............................................................................................................................................................................iii Introduction to Revel ........................................................................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 1: PHOTOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................................6 Learning Objectiv es ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6 Chapter Outline ..................................................................................................................................................................6 Chapter Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ..10 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................13 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers …………………………………………………………………………..14 CHAPTER 2: MISE EN SCÈNE . ..................................................................................................................................16 Learning Objectiv es …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ..16 Chapter Outline ................................................................................................................................................................16 Chapter Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ...21 Active Learning Assignments................................................................................................................................22 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers ………………………………………………………………………….. 23 CHAPTER 3: MOVEMENT .........................................................................................................................................25 Learning Objectiv es …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .25 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................25 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..29 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................31 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers ………………………………………………………………………….32 CHAPTER 4: EDITING ...............................................................................................................................................34 Learning Objectiv es …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .34 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................34 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..39 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................42 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers ………………………………………………………………………….42 CHAPTER 5: SOUND ............................................................................................................................................ .......44 Learning Objectiv es …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .44 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................44 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..48 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................52 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers …………………………………………………………………………. 52 CHAPTER 6: ACTING .............................................................................................................................................. .....54 Learning Objectiv es …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .54 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................54 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..57 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................61 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers …………………………………………………………………………..61 CHAPTER 7: DRAMA .................................................................................................................................................. ...63 Learning Objectiv es ……………………………………………………………………… . …………………………………… .63

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    v Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................63 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..65 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................68 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers …………………………………………………………………………. 68 . CHAPTER 8: STORY .................................................................................................................................................... .71 Learning Objectiv es …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .71 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................71 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..75 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................78 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers ………………………………….……………………………………….79 CHAPTER 9: WRITING ............................................................................................................................................... .81 Learning Objectiv es …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .81 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................81 Chapter Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….84 Active Learning Assignments..............................................................................................................................86 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers ………………………………………………………………………….86 CHAPTER 10: IDEOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................ ..89 Learning Objectiv es …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .89 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................89 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..92 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................96 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers ………………………………………………………………………….96 CHAPTER 11: CRITIQUE ........................................................................................................................................... .98 Learning Objectiv es …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .98 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................98 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………100 Active Learning Assignments..............................................................................................................................104 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers ………………………………………………………………………….104 CHAPTER 12 SYNTHESIS: CITIZEN KANE ......................................................................................................106 Learning Objectiv es …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… .106 Chapter Outline ...............................................................................................................................................................106 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..113 Active Learning Assignments...............................................................................................................................117 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers ………………………………………………………………………….117

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    1 INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL Introduction to REVEL Welcome to the REVEL edition of Understanding Movies by Louis Giannetti. Every chapter in the fourteenth edition of Understanding Movies has been carefully revised for publication in REVEL, a fully digital experience designed to integrate text contents with interactive elements. Understanding Movies continues to be organized around elements of film and provides valuable insight into how movies communicate and convey meaning to their audiences through a unique network of language systems and techniques. The narrative content is the same as the print text but contains enhancements; integrated media interactives and assessments let students read the content and engage with the material through hands-on applications. This immersive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to better understanding of concepts and improved performance throughout the course. All chapters begin on an introductory screen with chapter-specific learning objectives . Each subsection of content appears on its own screen.

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    2 Students can click on key terms to read a term’s definition in -line with chapter content. Movie stills and publicity shots not directly correlated to the text are clustered into interactives by topics related to the main narrative. These galleries allow students to pause and individually click through a group of images and their annotations. Each chapter includes a journal prompt . The journal prompt serves as a guided note-taking exercise to build student ability to critically analyze key elements in the development and creation of movies.

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    3 Each main section ends with a three- to five-question multiple-choice quiz . A variety of other interactive features integrated throughout each chapter also enhance student learning. Every chapter ends with a review screen. The interactive elements on this screen provide students with opportunities to study the content of the chapter. Advanced flash cards allow students to review and study each chapter’s key terms.

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    4 End-of-chapter material also includes a ten-question chapter quiz and a shared writing prompt . The shared writing prompt serves as an online discussion for students in a specific class to apply and analyze an essential chapter concept through contribution and response with their peers.

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    5

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    6 CHAPTER 1: PHOTOGRAPHY Learning Objectives 1. Recognize the distinctions among the three principal styles of film and the three types of movies, and evaluate how the style affects the presentation of the story. 2. List the six basic categories of film shots and their purpose in developing the scene. 3. Describe the five basic angles in the cinema and what contextual information the audience derives from each choice. 4. Outline the various types of lighting styles used in film and the symbolic connotations of each. 5. Explain the way directors consciously use colors to symbolically enhance the film’s dramatic content. 6. Identify how lens, filters, and stocks can intensify given qualities within a shot, and suppress others. 7. Evaluate the changes that digital technologies have had on film production, editing, presentation, and distribution. 8. Assess the role of cinematographers in the filmmaking process and identify how they are able to consolidate the various elements of film photography. Outline 1. Realism and Formalism a. Even before 1900, movies began to develop in two major directions: the realistic and the formalistic i. Lumiere brothers’ The Arrival of a Train ii. Georges Melies’ A Trip to the Moon b. styles in cinema: i. realism 1. reproduces the surface of reality with a minimum of distortion 2. preserves the illusion that the film world is unmanipulated ii. formalism 1. deliberately stylizes and distort raw materials 2. the stylization calls attention to itself iii. classicism 1. most fiction films fall somewhere between these two extremes 2. avoids the extremes of realism and formalism c. types of films: documentary, fiction, avant-garde 2. The Shots a. defined by the amount of subject matter that’s included within the frame of the screen

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    7 b. six basic categories of shots i. extreme long shot 1. photographed from a great distance away 2. used as establishing shot ii. long shot 1. roughly the same amount of space as the staging area of a large theater 2. deep-focus shot A. a long shot consisting of a number of focal distances and photographed in depth B. sometimes called a wide-angle shot because it requires a wide-angle lens to photograph iii. full shot 1. closest range within the long shot category 2. just barely includes the human body in full iv. medium shot 1. the shot of the couple 2. split focus rather than a single dominant focus v. close-up 1. shows very little if any locale 2. concentrates on a relatively small object vi. extreme close-up 3. The Angles a. the angle from which an object is photographed b. often serves as an authorial commentary on the subject matter c. five basic angles in the cinema i. bird’s -eye 1. directly overhead 2. permits us to hover above a scene like all-powerful gods 3. the people photographed seem vulnerable and insignificant ii. high 1. not as extrem e as bird’s -eye 2. often taken from a crane or high point to maximize locale 3. gives viewer a general overview 4. reduces the importance or power of a subject 5. slows movement iii. eye-level 1. as if an observer were viewing the events 2. permits us to make up our own minds about what kind of people are being presented iv. low 1. has the opposite effect of high 2. a person photographed from below inspires fear and awe v. oblique 1. involves a lateral tilt of the camera 2. suggests tension, transition, and impending movement

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    8 4. Light and Dark a. comedies and musicals tend to be lit in high key b. tragedies and melodramas are usually lit in high contrast c. mysteries, thrillers, and gangster films are generally lit in low key d. styles of lighting i. high key: bright, even illumination and no conspicuous shadows ii. low key: diffused shadows and atmospheric pools of light iii. high contrast: harsh shafts of lights and dramatic streaks of blackness e. lights and darks have had symbolic connotations in general, artists have used darkness to suggest fear, evil, the unknown i. light usually suggests security, virtue, truth, joy ii. some filmmakers deliberately reverse light – dark expectations f. three-point lighting i. cinematographers developed the technique during the Hollywood big-studio era ii. the key light is the primary source of illumination, creates the dominant of an image iii. fill lights, which are less intense than the key, soften the harshness of the main light source, revealing subsidiary details that would otherwise be hidden by shadow iv. the backlights separate the foreground figures from their setting, heightening the illusion of three-dimensional depth in the image. g. painterly versus linear styles i. a painterly style is soft-edged, sensuous, and romantic ii. line is de-emphasized: colors and textures shimmer in a hazily defined, radiantly illuminated environment iii. on the other hand, a linear style emphasizes drawing, sharply defined edges, and the supremacy of line over color and texture 5. Color a. color tends to be a subconscious element in film i. strongly emotional in its appeal ii. expressive and atmospheric rather than intellectual b. since earliest times, visual artists have used color for symbolic purposes i. cool colors (blue, green, violet) tend to suggest tranquility, aloofness, and serenity ii. cool colors also have a tendency to recede in an image iii. warm colors (red, yellow, orange) suggest aggressiveness, violence, and stimulation iv. they tend to come forward in most images 6. Lenses, Filters, and Stocks a. lenses i. the camera’s lens is a crude mecha nism compared to the human eye ii. especially with regard to size and distance, the camera records things literally iii. realist filmmakers tend to use normal, or standard, lenses to produce a minimum of distortion

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    9 iv. formalist filmmakers often prefer lenses and filters that intensify certain qualities and suppress others v. telephoto lenses produce a number of side effects that are sometimes exploited by directors for symbolic use 1. most long lenses are in sharp focus on one distance plane only 2. the longer the lens, the more sensitive it is to distances 3. long lenses also flatten images, decreasing the sense of distance vi. wide-angle lenses, also called short lenses, have short focal lengths and wide angles of view 1. used in deep-focus shots 2. preserve a sharpness of focus on virtually all distance planes 3. the wider the angle, the more lines and shapes tend to warp 4. movement toward or away from the camera is exaggerated when photographed with a short lens 5. the fish-eye lens is the most extreme wide-angle modifier b. filters i. used for purely cosmetic purposes to make an actor taller, slimmer, younger, or older ii. some trap light and refract it in such a way as to produce a diamond-like sparkle in the image iii. many filters are used to suppress or heighten certain colors c. film stocks i. two basic categories: fast and slow ii. fast stock is highly sensitive to light and in some cases can register images with no illumination except what’s available on location iii. slow stock is relatively insensitive to light and requires as much as ten times more illumination than fast stocks iv. traditionally, slow stocks are capable of capturing colors precisely, without washing them out v. fast stocks are commonly associated with documentary movies 7. The Digital Revolution a. digital cinema combines television and computer technologies and is essentially electronic in nature b. the images are not stored on a filmstrip, but on memory cards and hard drives c. digital images can have a higher degree of clarity and resolution than celluloid images d. digital images are composed of “pixels” (short for picture elements) seen as tiny dots on the TV monitor i. the more pixels that make up an image, the closer it resembles the subject being photographed, with a minimum of distortion ii. pixels are usually arranged on a two-dimensional grid iii. the sharpness or resolution of an image is a function of the number of pixels it contains iv. standard video screens have about 480 scan lines of visual information v. high-definition video (which is the favored form in cinema) has up to 1,080 scan lines

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    10 e. digital technology has revolutionized special effects in movies f. digital video cameras are much more portable than big, clumsy 35mm film cameras g. digital technology can save millions of dollars in motion picture production costs i. complex makeup can also be created digitally ii. computer-generated images can be stored for future use iii. traditional animation is being replaced by computer generated animation iv. digital editing is also much easier than traditional methods v. digital technology is making motion picture distribution and exhibition cheaper h. computer-generated images have radically undermined the traditional distinctions between realism and formalism in film theory 8. The Cinematographer a. director is generally the dominant artist in the best movies b. the principal collaborators — actors, writers, cinematographers — perform according to the director’s unifying sensibility c. sweeping statements about the role of the cinematographer are impossible to make i. varies widely from film to film and from director to director ii. virtually all cinematographers agree that the style of the photography should be geared to the story, theme, and mood of the film d. during the big-studio era — roughly from 1925 to 1955 — most cinematographers believed that the aesthetic elements of a film should be maximized i. beautiful pictures with beautiful people was the goal ii. today such views are considered rigid and doctrinaire e. “Many times, what you don’t see is much more effective than what you do see,” the late Gordon Willis noted. f. realist directors are especially likely to prefer an unobtrusive style g. there are far more films in which the only interesting or artistic quality is the cinematography Summary Critics and scholars categorize movies according to a variety of criteria. Two of the most common methods of classification are by style and by type. The three principal styles — realism, classicism, and formalism — might be regarded as a continuous spectrum of possibilities, rather than airtight categories. Similarly, the three types of movies — documentaries, fiction, and avant-garde films — are also terms of convenience, for they often overlap. Even before 1900, movies began to develop in two major directions: the realistic and the formalistic. The three styles of film, identified as realism, formalism, and classicism are general rather than absolute terms, and in the end, are really just labels. Generally speaking, realistic films attempt to reproduce the surface of reality with a minimum of

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    11 distortion. Formalists, on the other hand, deliberately stylize and distort their raw materials so that no one would mistake a manipulated image of an object or event for the real thing. Classical cinema can be viewed as an intermediate style that avoids the extremes of realism and formalism. Few films are exclusively one style over the others. Virtually all film directors go to the photographable world for their subject matter. What they do with this material captured by the camera lens, and how they shape and manipulate it, determines the eventual style the viewer perceives in the finished product. The shots are defined by the amount of subject matter that’s included within the frame of the screen. In general, shots are determined on the basis of how much of the human figure is in view. The shot is not necessarily defined by the distance between the camera and the object photographed. In actual practice, shot designations vary considerably. Although there are many different kinds of shots in the cinema, most of them are subsumed under the six basic categories: (1) the extreme long shot; (2) the long shot; (3) the full shot; (4) the medium shot; (5) the close-up; and (6) the extreme close-up. The deep-focus shot is usually a variation of the long shot, consisting of a number of focal distances and photographed in depth. The angle from which an object is photographed can often serve as an authorial commentary on the subject matter. There are five basic angles in the cinema: (1) the bird’s -eye view; (2) the high angle; (3) the eye-level shot; (4) the low angle; and (5) the oblique angle. If the angle is slight, it can serve as a subtle form of emotional coloration. If the angle is extreme, it can represent the major meaning of an image. The angle is determined by where the camera is placed, not the subject photographed. Film realists tend to avoid extreme angles. Formalist directors are concerned with the angle that best captures the essential nature of the subject. Extreme angles involve distortions. By distorting the surface realism of an object, a greater truth may be achieved — a symbolic truth. The use of light and shadow can also create mood and emotional impact. The illumination of most movies is seldom a casual matter, for lights can be used with pinpoint accuracy. There are a number of different styles of lighting. Usually designated as a lighting key, the style is geared to the theme and mood of a film, as well as its genre. Comedies and musicals tend to be lit in high key, with bright, even illumination and no conspicuous shadows. Tragedies and melodramas are usually lit in high contrast, with harsh shafts of lights and dramatic streaks of blackness. Mysteries, thrillers, and gangster films are generally in low key, with diffused shadows and atmospheric pools of light. Lights and darks have had symbolic connotations. In general, artists have used darkness to suggest fear, evil, the unknown. Light usually suggests security, virtue, truth, joy. Lighting can be used realistically or expressionistically. The realist favors available lighting, at least in exterior scenes. Formalists use light less literally. They are guided by its symbolic implications and will often stress these qualities by deliberately distorting natural light patterns. During the Hollywood big-studio era, cinematographers developed the technique of three-point lighting, which is still widely practiced throughout the world. With three-point lighting, the key light is the primary source of illumination. Fill lights, which are less intense than the key, soften the harshness of the main light source. Backlights separate the foreground figures from their setting.

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    12 A painterly lighting style is soft-edged, sensuous, and romantic, best typified by the Impressionists. Line is de-emphasized: Colors and textures shimmer in a hazily defined, radiantly illuminated environment. On the other hand, a linear style emphasizes drawing, sharply defined edges, and the supremacy of line over color and texture. Color in film didn’t become commercially widespread until the 1940s.Sophisticated film color was developed in the 1930s, but for many years a major problem was its tendency to prettify everything. Color tends to be a subconscious element in film. It’s strongly emotional in its appeal, expressive and atmospheric rather than intellectual. Since earliest times, visual artists have used color for symbolic purposes. In general, cool colors (blue, green, violet) tend to suggest tranquility, aloofness, and serenity. Cool colors also have a tendency to recede in an image. Warm colors (red, yellow, orange) suggest aggressiveness, violence, and stimulation. They tend to come forward in most images. Because the camera lens is so primitive compared with the human eye, some of the most striking effects in a movie image can be achieved through the distortions of the photographic process, using appropriate lenses, filters, and stocks. Realist filmmakers tend to use normal, or standard, lenses to produce a minimum of distortion. These lenses photograph subjects more or less as they are perceived by the human eye. Formalist filmmakers often prefer lenses and filters that intensify certain qualities and suppress others. Long lenses tend to flatten images, decreasing the sense of distance between depth planes. Two people standing yards apart might look inches away when photographed with a telephoto lens. The wide-angle lenses, also called short lenses, have short focal lengths and wide angles of view. These are the lenses used in deep-focus shots, for they preserve a sharpness of focus on virtually all distance planes. The wider the angle, the more lines and shapes tend to warp, especially at the edges of the image. Distances between various depth planes are also exaggerated with these lenses. Film stocks fall into two basic categories: fast and slow. Fast stock is highly sensitive to light and in some cases can register images with no illumination except what’s available on location, even in nighttime sequences. Slow stock is relatively insensitive to light and requires as much as ten times more illumination than fast stocks. Digital technology has radically changed how movies are photographed, how they are edited, how they are distributed, and how they are shown to the public. Introduced in the 1980s and refined in the 1990s, digital technology has, for all intents and purposes, replaced the celluloid technology that dominated the motion picture industry for over a hundred years. Digital cinema combines television and computer technologies and is essentially electronic in nature. The images are not stored on a filmstrip, but on memory cards and hard drives. Digital images can have a higher degree of clarity and resolution than celluloid. Digital images are composed of “pixels” (short for picture elements), which can be seen as tiny dots on the TV monitor. Because these pixels can be easily manipulated by computer, digital technology has revolutionized special effects in movies. Digital video cameras are much more portable than the big, clumsy 35mm film cameras. Digital

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    13 video is also cheap. Digital video can save movie producers millions in other costs such as in editing, which is also much easier than traditional methods, as well as in distribution and exhibition of movies. Traditional animation, with its time-consuming, hand-drawn celluloid images, is also being replaced by computers, which produce images that are created digitally, not by hand. The cinematographer plays a vital role in the creation of a film. Generally speaking, the cinematographer (who is also known as the director of photography, or D.P.) is responsible for arranging and controlling the lighting of a film and the quality of the photography. Usually the cinematographer executes the specific or general instructions of the director. The collaborative work between this person and the director shapes the overall vision of the film and how it will look onscreen. Of course, certain directors take more control over this vision than others, but the cinematographer is still the person who oversees the camera crew. Films worth discussing include any Hitchcock film , Traffic, and Days of Heaven. Active Learning Assignments Learning Objective 2. List the six basic categories of film shots and their purpose in developing the scene; and Learning Objective 3. Describe the five basic angles in the cinema and what contextual information the audience derives from each choice. 1. Watch the “Cropduster, Highway 41” scene from Alfred Hitchcock’s North by Northwest (available on YouTube). List all the camera shots and angles used by the filmmaker. Which shots do you think are the most effective? Why? How would you characterize the style of this scene? Realist? Formalist? Classical? Why? Learning Objective 1. Recognize the distinctions among the three principal styles of film and the three types of movies, and evaluate how the style affects the presentation of the story. 2. Make a list of science fiction or western films you’ve seen and then a list of comedies or romantic comedies. Now think about which category of film, sci-fi/western or comedy/rom- com, uses which shots and angles most often. Does one genre use more long and extreme-long shots than the other? What about medium shots and two-shots? If you think there is a difference, explain why. Do you think there are any hard-and-fast rules when it comes to shooting any particular genre of film? Learning Objective 7. Evaluate the changes that digital technologies have had on film production, editing, presentation, and distribution. 3. Compare two scenes, one from the original War of the Worlds (1953) and one from the most recent remake by Steven Spielberg in 2005. Explain how special effects have changed from one film to the other, in terms of the technical capabilities available to the production team, and also how those effects strengthen or weaken the narrative.

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    14 In-class Discussion Questions and Answers Learning Objective 1. Recognize the distinctions among the three principal styles of film and the three types of movies, and evaluate how the style affects the presentation of the story. 1. Question: Gold Diggers of 1933 presents us with a unique cinematic experience, especially with respect to style. What type of film is this, documentary, fiction, or avant-garde? Or is it a mixture of one or more of these types? Why? What filmmaking style best describes this film: realist, formalist, or classical? Why? Consider:  The choreographies of Busby Berkeley are triumphs of artifice, far removed from the real world. Depression-weary audiences flocked to movies like this precisely to get away from everyday reality. They wanted magic and enchantment, not reminders of their real-life problems.  Berkeley’s style was the most formalized of all choreographers.  He liberated the camera from the narrow confines of the proscenium arch, soaring overhead, even swirling among the dancers, and juxtaposing shots from a variety of vantage points throughout the musical numbers.  He often photographed his dancers from unusual angles.  Sometimes he didn’t even bother using dancers at all, preferring a uniform contingent of good-looking young women who are used primarily as semiabstract visual units, like bits of glass in a shifting kaleidoscope of formal patterns. Learning Objective 5. Explain the way directors consciously use colors to symbolically enhance the film’s dramatic content. 2. Question: How does color, or the lack of it, create mood and atmosphere in Vittorio De Sica’s The Garden of the Finzi-Continis ? Why did De Sica shoot the film in color? Why didn’t he just shoot the film in black-and-white? Why do you think he did not mix color and black-and-white? Consider:  Since earliest times, visual artists have used color for symbolic purposes. In general, cool colors (blue, green, violet) tend to suggest tranquility, aloofness, and serenity. Cool colors also have a tendency to recede in an image.  Warm colors (red, yellow, orange) suggest aggressiveness, violence, and stimulation. They tend to come forward in most images.  Black-and-white photography in a color film is sometimes used for symbolic purposes. Some filmmakers alternate whole episodes in black and white with entire sequences in color.  The problem with this technique is its corny symbolism. The jolting black-and-white sequences are too obviously “significant” in the most arty sense. A more effective variation is simply not to use too much color, to let black and white predominate.  In De Sica’s The Garden of the Finzi-Continis , which is set in Fascist Italy, the early portions of the movie are richly resplendent in shimmering golds, reds, and almost every shade of green.  As political repression becomes more brutal, these colors almost imperceptibly begin to wash out, until near the end of the film the images are dominated by whites, blacks, and blue-grays. Learning Objective 7. Evaluate the changes that digital technologies have had on film

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    15 production, editing, presentation, and distribution. 3. Question: In Life of Pi , the special effects are so realistic they almost convince us that we’re actually seeing the young protagonist sharing a lifeboat with a ferocious tiger. Explain why this might be a problem in categorizing this film as realist or formalist in style? Explain why you think the filmmakers chose to use digital effects as opposed to a real tiger for example? What was the result of the audience viewing the film in 3-D? Did it change the style at all? Consider:  Critic Stephen Prince has observed that such technological advancements as computer- generated images have radically undermined the traditional distinctions between realism and formalism in film theory. Why do you think that is?  In Life of Pi , the tiger was not a real tiger, but was created by CGI (computer-generated imagery). The tiger was created by hundreds of artists at Rhythm & Hues, based in Los Angeles.  Most of the movie takes place within the narrow confines of the boat. Is this important?  The crew viewed film footage of actual tigers before constructing their digital tiger. Why?  The 3-D is strikingly realistic, as the tiger seems to be snarling, growling, and lunging at the viewer — a perfect demonstration that realism is not always based on reality.

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    16 CHAPTER 2: MISE EN SCÈNE Learning Objectives 1. Identify the two main screen aspect ratios and evaluate how directors have used masks and other techniques in order to both enhance and overcome them. 2. Analyze the way the human eye perceives a composition and the way design and the geography of the frame is used to enhance a thematic idea. 3. Describe how the three visual planes suggest depth in a scene and how the use of this territory can act as a means of communication. 4. Diagram the five basic positions in which an actor can be photographed, and describe the different psychological undertones of each. 5. Explain the four main proxemic patterns in film and culture, and describe how the distances between characters can be used to establish the nature of their relationships. 6. Illustrate why open and closed forms serve as two distinct attitudes about reality and list in which circumstances they each prove most effective. Outline 1. Introduction to mise en scène ( “ placing on stag e” ) a. phrase refers to the arrangement of all the visual elements of a theatrical production within a given playing area — the stage b. in movies, mise en scène is more complicated, a blend of the visual conventions of the live theater with those of painting i. filmmaker arranges objects and people within a given three-dimensional space ii. once this arrangement is photographed, it’s converted into a two -dimensional image of the real thing iii. mise en scène in the movies resembles the art of painting in that an image of formal patterns and shapes is presented on a flat surface and is enclosed within a frame iv. cinematic mise en scène is also a fluid choreographing of visual elements that are constantly in flux 2. The Frame a. functions of the frame i. each movie image enclosed by the frame of the screen ii. defines the world of the film iii. separates it from the actual world of the darkened auditorium iv. film is temporal as well as spatial

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    17 v. single-frame image from a movie is necessarily an artificially frozen moment b. aspect ratios for film, television, and video i. most movies projected in one of two aspect ratios: 1.85:1 (standard) and 2.35:1 (widescreen) ii. television used to have aspect ratio of 1.33:1 iii. today television has a wider aspect ratio, but still not as wide as most theatrical widescreens c. frame as an aesthetic device i. in traditional visual arts, frame dimensions are governed by nature of subject matter ii. in movies, frame ratio is standardized and isn’t necessarily governed by nature of materials being photographed iii. constant size of movie frame is especially hard to overcome in vertical compositions iv. as an aesthetic device, the frame performs in several ways 1. the sensitive director is just as concerned with what’s left out of frame as with what’s included 2. frame is thus essentially an isolating device d. symbolic implications within the frame and off-frame i. some directors like Hitchcock use the frame voyeuristically ii. placement within the frame is another instance of how form is actually content iii. each of the major sections of the frame — center, top, bottom, and sides — can be exploited for such symbolic purposes 1. central portions of the screen generally reserved for the most important visual elements, and a kind of norm 2. area near the top of the frame can suggest ideas dealing with power, authority, and aspiration 3. bottom of frame tends to suggest meanings opposite from the top: subservience, vulnerability, and powerlessness 4. left and right edges of the frame tend to suggest insignificance 5. there are instances when a director places the most important visual elements completely off-frame — especially when character is associated with darkness, mystery, or death 6. two other off-frame areas can be exploited for symbolic purposes: the space behind the set and the space in front of the camera e. circular history of motion picture viewing 3. Composition and Design a. one of the primary problems facing the filmmaker is much like that confronting the painter: the arrangement of shapes, colors, lines, and textures on a flat rectangular surface b. in classical cinema, this arrangement is generally held in some kind of balance harmonious equilibrium c. when a visual artist wishes to stress a lack of equilibrium, many of the standard conventions of classical composition are deliberately violated d. human eye automatically attempts to harmonize the formal elements of a composition into a unified whole i. the eye can detect as many as seven or eight major elements of a composition

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    18 simultaneously ii. in most cases, however, the eye doesn’t wander promiscuously over the surface of an image but is guided to specific areas in sequence 1. through the use of a dominant contrast 2. after we take in the dominant, our eye then scans the subsidiary contrasts subsidiary contrasts e. generally, visual interest of the dominant corresponds with the dramatic interest of the image f. b ecause films have temporal and dramatic contexts, however, the dominant is often movement itself i. some aestheticians call this intrinsic interest ii. movement is almost always an automatic dominant contrast iii. importance of motion varies with the kind of shot used g. visual confusion can result when there are more than eight or nine major compositional elements h. compositional elements (weights. and their location within the frame i. for instance, we tend to scan pictures from left to right ii. upper part of the composition is heavier than the lower iii. images seem more balanced when the center of gravity is kept low iv. isolated figures and objects tend to be heavier than those in a cluster i. certain lines suggest directional movements i. horizontal lines tend to move from left to right ii. vertical lines, from bottom to top iii. diagonal lines are more dynamic — they tend to sweep upward j. a skeletal structure underlies most visual compositions i. artists have favored S and X shapes, triangular designs, and circles ii. binary structures emphasize parallelism iii. triadic compositions stress the dynamic interplay iv. circular compositions can suggest security, enclosure, the female principle 4. Territorial Space a. since most movie images deal with the illusion of volume and depth, the film director must keep these spatial considerations in mind while composing the visuals b. filmmakers compose on three visual planes: foreground, middle, and background c. space is a medium of communication, and the way we respond to objects and people within a given area is a constant source of information in life as well as in movies i. findings of psychologists and anthropologists — including Konrad Lorenz, Robert Sommers, and Edward T. Hall — are revealing in terms of how space is used in cinema ii. in his study On Aggression , Lorenz discusses how most animals — including humans — are territorial iii. territories have a spatial hierarchy of power iv. space is one of the principal mediums of communication in film v. the way that people are arranged in space can tell us a lot about their social psychological relationships vi. in film, dominant characters are almost always given more space to occupy than others vii. the amount of space taken up by a character in a movie relates to their dramatic importance d. the five ways of photographing an actor

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    19 i. full front — facing the camera ii. quarter turn iii. profile — looking off frame left or right iv. three-quarter turn v. back to camera e. b ecause the viewer identifies with the camera’s lens, the positioning of the actor vis- à-vis the camera will determine many of our reactions. f. t he more we see of the actor’s face, the greater our sense of privileged intimacy; the less we see, the more mysterious and inaccessible the actor will seem g. tightly framed versus loosely framed shots i. generally, the closer the shot the more confined the photographed figures appear to be; such shots are usually referred to as tightly framed ii. conversely, longer, loosely framed shots tend to suggest freedom h. the psychology of territorial space 5. Proxemic Patterns a. anthropologist Edward T. Hall demonstrated that proxemic patterns — the relationships of organisms within a given space — can be influenced by external considerations b. Hall subdivided the way people use space into four major proxemic patterns i. intimate: from skin contact to about eighteen inches away ii. personal : from eighteen inches to about four feet away iii. social: from four feet to about twelve feet iv. public distances: from twelve feet to twenty-five feet and more c. proxemic patterns and their camera shot equivalents i. the intimate: close and extreme close shot ii. the personal : medium close range iii. the social: the medium and full shot ranges iv. the public distances: long and extreme long shot ranges d. in general, the greater the distance between the camera and the subject, the more emotionally neutral we remain. e. usually, director selects the shot that most clearly conveys the dramatic action of a scene. f. 3-D movies and the expansion into the “ fourth wall ” 6. Open and Closed Forms a. open forms i. emphasize informal, unobtrusive compositions ii. seem to have no discernible structure and suggest a random form of organization iii. objects and figures seem to have been found rather than deliberately arranged b. closed forms i. emphasize a more stylized design ii. although such images can suggest a superficial realism, seldom do they have the accidental, discovered look that typifies open forms iii. objects and figures are more precisely placed within the frame, and the balance of weights is elaborately worked out c. realism and formalism i. generally, realist filmmakers tend to use open forms

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    20 ii. formalists lean toward closed forms d. the use of the frame in open forms i. in open-form images, frame tends to be de-emphasized ii. suggests a window, a temporary masking iii. implies that more important information lies outside the edges of the composition iv. space is continuous in these shots v. to emphasize its continuity outside the frame, directors often favor panning their camera across the locale vi. shot seems inadequate, too narrow in its confines to contain the copiousness of the subject matter e. the use of the frame in closed forms i. shot represents a miniature proscenium arch ii. all necessary information carefully structured within the confines of frame. iii. space seems enclosed and self-contained rather than continuous iv. elements outside the frame are irrelevant, at least in terms of the formal properties of the individual shot, which is isolated from its context in space and time f. in open-form movies, the dramatic action generally leads the camera i. such anticipatory setups tend to imply fatality or determinism ii. the camera seems to know what will happen even before it occurs g. in closed-form films, the camera often anticipates the dramatic action i. tend to imply destiny and the futility of the will ii. characters don’t seem to make the important decisions; camera does— and in advance h. fifteen visual principles of mise en scène i. Dominant: Where is our eye attracted first? Why? ii. Lighting key: High key? Low key? High contrast? Some combination of these? iii. Shot and camera proxemics: What type of shot? How far away is the camera from the action? iv. Angle: Are we (and the camera) looking up or down on the subject? Or is the camera neutral (eye level)? v. Color values: What is the dominant color? Are there contrasting foils? Is there any color symbolism? vi. Lens/filter/stock: How do these distort or comment on the photographed materials? vii. Subsidiary contrasts: What are the main eye-stops after taking in the dominant? viii. Density: How much visual information is packed into the image? Is the texture stark, moderate, or highly detailed? ix. Composition: How is the two-dimensional space segmented and organized? What is the underlying design? x. Form: Open or closed? Does the image suggest a window that arbitrarily isolates a fragment of the scene? Or a proscenium arch, in which the visual elements are carefully arranged and held in balance? xi. Framing: Tight or loose? Do the characters have no room to move around, or can they move freely without impediments? xii. Depth: On how many planes is the image composed? Does the background or foreground comment in any way on the midground? xiii. Character placement: What part of the framed space do the characters occupy? Center? Top? Bottom? Edges? Why? xiv. Staging positions: Which way do the characters look vis-à-vis the camera? xv. Character proxemics: How much space is there between the characters?

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    21 Summary Mise en scène is basically the arrangement of all the visual elements of a scene within a film. It is a blend of the visual conventions of live theater with those of painting. As a result, it is an art that is intimately linked with cinematography. There are formal elements at work in mise en scène, that when used effectively, create a successful interpretation of what we see on screen. The “f rame ” as used in cinema, is a defined area of visual and narrative activity. It functions as the basis of composition in a movie image. One of the primary factors that filmmakers must consider when composing the contents of a frame of film is the aspect ratio that will be used. That is the ratio of the frame ’s vertical and horizontal dimensions as it will look on a movie theater or television screen. As an aesthetic device, the frame performs in several ways. The sensitive director is just as concerned with what ’ s left out of the frame as with wha t’s in cluded. The framing of visual content for a film implies symbolism and metaphor. The major sections of the frame — center, top, bottom, and sides — can all imply psychological and emotive meanings. This also is true for what may be off-frame. Motion picture viewing has come full circle from early peepshows to IMAX 3-D screens and now returning to the miniature screens of cellphones. The composition and design of what we see on the screen is an important process for the filmmaker. How the content of the frame is presented to us helps us determine what is important and what is not when interpreting the narrative. Patterns are the key to creating a sense of narrative continuity. We are guided in this process through the use of dominant and subsidiary contrasts . Included in the prominence of dominant contrast , as our guide to following the narrative, is intrinsic interest . Also, movement and motion, which are part and parcel of dominant contrast, contribute to the content of the frame. They point out for us what is significant and what is not. The compositional elements (weights of shape, color, and texture), when distributed across the frame either balanced or asymmetrical, help create a psychological mood and convey the narrative as the filmmaker perceives it. One must remember that cinematic design is generally fused with a thematic idea. The number of characters seen in any given frame of film can create stable or unstable points within the narrative. Film is an art form that exists in time and space. But film, despite being displayed on a two- dimensional surface, also creates the illusion of depth and three-dimensional space. The film director must always be aware of this in his creation of the visuals. The primary manner in accomplishing a sense of three-dimensionality in film is the use of all three areas of the frame: foreground, middle, and background. One of the most elementary, yet crucial, decisions the film director makes is how much detail should be included within the frame. Along with this is the determination of where the camera should be in relation to the subject, which in turn means how close do we get to the subject. The spatial relation between us, and who we see on screen, involves the notion of territories , which have a spatial hierarchy of power. The main characters in a f ilm’s narrative tend to occupy more visual and dramatic space. Thus, the way an actor can be photographed, five positions in all, determines how we react to them and interpret the narrative. This also closely follows along with the idea that the frame itself is a territory, and thus tightly framed and loosely framed shots shape our interpretations of the frame ’s contents. When everything is finally put together in a frame, it becomes apparent that territorial space can be manipulated with considerable psychological complexity.

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    22 Anthropological studies of proxemic patterns , the relationships of organisms within a given space and the influence of external factors such as light, noise, and climate, can be applied to filmmaking. There are four major proxemic patterns: intimate, personal, social, and public. These patterns can have associated camera position equivalents, which will assist the viewe r’s interpretation of the scene. The choice of a shot is generally determined by practical considerations. If there is a conflict between the effect of certain proxemic ranges and the clarity needed to convey wha t’s going on, most filmmakers will opt for clarity and gain their emotional impact through some other means. The popularity of 3-D movies has added a new dimension to territorial space: 3-D makes the depth of an image much more realistic than the conventional illusion of depth in two dimensions. This can engage the viewer even more as the image moves into the personal space of the viewer. This new realism combined with surround sound takes the viewer into a realm of total immersion, and closer to their perception of the real world. The concepts of open and closed forms are generally used by art historians and critics, but these terms can also be useful in film analysis. In practical applications, they are best used in a relative rather than absolute sense. No film is completely one or the other, but rather gravitates to one type. These terms are used only to help understand the level of reality presented in the f ilm’s narrative. Open and closed forms are loosely related to the concepts of realism and formalism discussed in this text. In general, realist filmmakers use open forms, which emphasize informal, unobtrusive compositions and are stylistically recessive. Open forms use imagery that has no discernible structure and suggest a random form of organization. The open form film allows the dramatic action to lead the camera, and the frame is de-emphasized. Formalist filmmakers tend to use closed forms, which emphasize a more stylized design. Objects and figures are more precisely placed within the frame, and the balance of weights is elaborately worked out. Closed forms are generally self-conscious and visually appealing. The closed form film allows the camera to anticipate the dramatic action. Open and closed forms are most effective in movies where these techniques are appropriate to the subject matter. A systematic mise en scène analysis of any given shot includes fifteen elements. These fifteen visual principles can be applied to any image analysis. Applying these principles can help us train our eyes to “ rea d” a movie image with more critical sophistication. While mise en scène is just as important to realism as it is to classicism and formalism, it is generally easier for students to perceive and discuss the self-consciously artistic visual designs of more formalistic films. Two good examples, Amadeus and Dangerous Liaisons, are excellent studies for mise en scène analysis. Active Learning Assignments Learning Objective 6. Illustrate why open and closed forms serve as two distinct attitudes about reality and list in which circumstances they each prove most effective. 1. Define open and closed forms. Pick one scene from the first half of Full Metal Jacket and one from the second half of the film that contrast form. What does the choice of compositional form say about the characters? What does it say about the theme of the movie? Does Kubrick change the predominant form from the first half of the film to the second? If so, what might this transition mean in terms of the dramatic context and the narrative?

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    23 Learning Objective 5. Explain the four main proxemic patterns in film and culture, and describe how the distances between characters can be used to establish the nature of their relationships. 2. How is the concept of “territorial space” defined and used in filmmaking? What are the concerns of the director when working with space and its illusion on-screen? Along with territories, how do tightly framed and loosely framed shots shape our interpretations of the frame’s contents? Use examples from The Graduate to aid in this discussion, and have the students explain the “spatial hierarchy of power” found in several scenes of this film. Learning Objective 1. Identify the two main screen aspect ratios and evaluate how directors have used masks and other techniques in order to both enhance and overcome them. 3. View a scene shot in widescreen and one shot in a traditional aspect ratio (for example, a scene from Lawrence of Arabia and a scene from Rush Hour) . Discuss how changing the aspect ratio can change the meaning of a particular shot, scene, or even whole movie. Does genre matter in the choice of an aspect ratio? Do some film genres work better in widescreen? In-class Discussion Questions and Answers: Learning Objective 2. Analyze the way the human eye perceives a composition and the way design and the geography of the frame is used to enhance a thematic idea. 1. Question: Compare and contrast two scenes that have the same characters in them but use different framing techniques for composing the images, for example, from a movie like The Good Thief or Finding Neverland . Consider:  Where to put the camera is perhaps the most important decision a film director makes before shooting a scene.  What do the differences in framing imply about the characters?  Does the dramatic context affect the meaning of the framing? Learning Objective 4. Diagram the five basic positions in which an actor can be photographed, and describe the different psychological undertones of each. 2. Question: View two scenes from Like Water for Chocolate that have the same character in them, but that photograph them from different angles or camera placements and discuss the differences in how the scenes reveal story and character. Consider:  Do the scenes use different proxemic traits or the same?  What do the proxemics imply about the relationships between the characters?  Does the dramatic context affect the meaning of the proxemics? Learning Objective 2. Analyze the way the human eye perceives a composition and the way design and the geography of the frame is used to enhance a thematic idea. 3. Question: Name the fifteen visual principles used for mise en scène analysis, and apply them to a scene of your choice from the Coen Brothers’ Blood Simple .

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    24 Consider:  What techniques of mise en scène, if any, do the Coen Brothers emphasize in this film?  What techniques do they use only minimally?  Does the film rely on open or closed forms?  Is the framing predominantly tight or loose?  Based on your analysis of the mise en scène, is Blood Simple a realistic or formalistic film? Why? What evidence can you show to support your answer?

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    25 CHAPTER 3: MOVEMENT Learning Objectives 1. Describe the three main types of motion and kinetic arts, and explain how each type can be affected by stylization. 2. Illustrate the basic ways that movement is used within the genres of slapstick comedies, action films, dance movies, animation, and musicals. 3. Compare the kinetic richness within the staged choreography of dance sequences and action scenes. 4. Explain the psychology of movement on the screen, and how it can create an emotional response based on the depth of the shot, motion of the camera, and the camera ’s l ens. 5. Identify the seven basic moving camera shots and the different psychological meanings implied by each. 6. Differentiate the five basic distortions of film movement. Outline 1. Cinema derives from the Greek word for “ moveme nt,” as do the words kinetic, kinesthesia, and choreography — terms usually associated with the art of dance 2. Kinetics (the art of motion) a. relating film genres to movement i. a naturalistic actor like Bruce Willis uses only realistic movements ii. pantomimists like Charles Chaplin tended to use motion more balletically, more symbolically iii. even more stylized are the movements of performers in a musical b. intrinsic meanings associated with various portions of the frame are closely related to the significance of certain kinds of movements i. upward motion seems soaring and free because it conforms to the eye’s natural tendency to move upward over a composition ii. movements in this direction often suggest aspiration, joy, power, and authority iii. downward movements suggest opposite ideas: grief, death, insignificance, depression, weakness c. psychological implications of movement i. because the eye tends to read a picture from left to right, physical movement in this direction seems psychologically natural ii. movement from right to left often seems inexplicably tense and uncomfortable iii. movement toward or away from the camera is somewhat like a character moving toward or away from us

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    26 1. movement toward the audience is generally strong and assertive, suggesting confidence on the part of the moving character 2. movement away from the camera tends to decrease the intensity and the character seems to grow remote d. lateral movement vs. depth on the screen i. generally, if the character moves from right to left (or vice versa, he or she will seem determined and efficient ii. lateral movements tend to emphasize speed and efficiency iii. when a character moves in or out of the depth of a scene, the effect is often one of slowness iv. when depth movement is photographed in an uninterrupted lengthy take, the audience tends to anticipate the conclusion of the movement e. movement in relation to shots and angles i. distance and angle from which movement is photographed determine much of its meaning ii. the longer and higher the shot, the slower the movement tends to appear iii. from close and low angles, movement seems more intense, speeded up f. movement vs. stasis i. movement in film is a subtle issue, for it’s necessarily dependent on the kind of shot used ii. neither movement or stasis is more “intrinsically filmic” than the other iii. epic and psychological movies use movement in different ways, with emphasis on different shots 1. epic movies usually depend on the longer shots for their effects 2. psychological films tend to use the closer shots 3. one stresses action, the other reaction iv. two filmmakers can approach the same story and produce totally different results 1. Hamlet is a good example 2. Olivier vs. Zeffirelli v. conveying emotions through kinetic symbolism 1. Sergei Eisenstein’s Old and New 2. Charles Vidor’s Ladies in Retirement 3. ecstasy and joy are often expressed by expansive motions 4. fear by a variety of tentative or trembling movements 5. eroticism can be conveyed through the use of undulating motions vi. minimalist movement 1. Ozu and Bresson 2. experiments in restricted movement such as in Buried 3. The Moving Camera a. background i. before the 1920s, filmmakers tended to confine camera movements to the subject photographed ii. in the 1920s, such German filmmakers as F. W. Murnau and E. A. Dupont moved the camera within the shot not only for physical reasons but for psychological and thematic reasons i ii. a major problem of the moving camera involves time

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