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Perceiving The Arts: An Introduction To The Humanities, 11th Edition Test Bank

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Perceiving The Arts: An Introduction To The Humanities, 11th Edition Test Bank is a comprehensive exam guide designed to help you master key topics with detailed explanations and practice questions.

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    iii CONTENTS RESOURCES Suggestions for Using the Text iv Notes on Artistic Styles vi TEST QUESTIONS Chapter 1 Introduction: What Are the Arts and How Do We Respond to 1 and Evaluate Them? Chapter 2 Pictures: Drawing, Painting, Printmaking, and Photography 7 Chapter 3 Sculpture 15 Chapter 4 Architecture 20 Chapter 5 Music 26 Chapter 6 Literature 32 Chapter 7 Theatre 37 Chapter 8 Cinema 42 Chapter 9 Dance 48

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    iv RESOURCES SUGGESTIONS FOR USING THE TEXT This text is a concentrated reference that covers all the arts. It is organized to provide consistency in treatment from one arts discipline to another. Thus, teachers and students can find numerous ways of drawing comparisons among the arts. Making such cross-disciplinary comparisons and investigations ought to be the crux of any interdisciplinary course. A series of truncated, “mini”-appreciation courses will not provide much satisfaction or much understanding of the arts as a special way of communicating and examining the world. One can create linkages among the arts in any number of ways and on any number of levels. For example, many terms, such as line, form, color, and so on, have both spatial and temporal inferences that can be explored in order to bring music, visual art, literature, architecture, theatre, cinema, and dance together. On a deeper level, elements of style can be compared in order to see (and hear) how much the components of style work together to create visual or oral statements that are very much like the statements of a similar style in a different medium. Determining how the characteristics of baroque visual art, for example, have equivalents in baroque music provides a great challenge as well as satisfying rewards. It also affords an opportunity for meaningful encounters with specific works of art. Making comparisons between and among works of art engages students directly. Noting how Painting A differs in its use of line from Painting B and how those differences might affect our responses gets students to the nub of the matter and provides a more substantive approach than asking them to respond to questions such as “How do you feel about it?” (Although that has its place in the response equation as well.) Ultimately, students find consistent and manageable threads among the arts and find the arts more accessible than they might have imagined. The British critic, Philip Radcliffe, says that we must disassociate ourselves from “this mystique” that the arts “are terribly special things for terribly special people.” Perceiving the Arts’ concentrated approach assures students that they have the basic perceptual skills to experience the arts meaningfully and confidently. Having confidence and appreciating meaning are important factors in making the arts lifelong companions. Perceiving the Arts , with its compact, compendium-like approach, can be used either as a primary or supplemental text. As a primary text, it requires that the teacher engage students in actual works of art and in enhanced exploration of the artistic media. As a supplementary text, Perceiving the Arts can provide teachers and students with basic technical information about the arts that is usually not covered in primary texts dealing

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    v with cultural and artistic history. For example, Chapter 2 has a wealth of information on painting and printmaking and on the color spectrum, hues, primary colors, and so on. Whether this textbook is used as a primary or supplemental text, its content provides concise guidance for what can be seen and heard in works of art. Consequently, students will benefit from having their knowledge of the arts extended and the depth and value of their aesthetic experience increased.

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    vi NOTES ON ARTISTIC STYLES Here is an overview of important artistic styles that can assist in presenting the material in the “A Question of Style” feature boxes throughout the text. Abstract Expressionism. Abstract Expressionism in painting (mid-20 th century) has two identifying characteristics. One characteristic is nontraditional brushwork, and the other is nonrepresentational content. This approach leaves the artist free to reflect inner life and to create works with high emotional intensity. Absolute individuality of expression and the freedom to be irrational underlie this style. Abstraction. Abstraction (20 th century) painting is “nonrepresentational” art. That is, it contains minimal reference to natural objects, the objects in the world we perceive through our senses. Abstract art, in many ways, stands in contrast to impressionism and expressionism in that the observer can read little or nothing in the painting of the artist’s feelings for anything outside the painting. Abstract painting explores the expressive qualities of formal design elements and materials in their own right, and these elements are assumed to stand apart from subject matter or content. Abstraction in sculpture pursues the goals of all abstract art, and that is to explore beauty in form alone; no other quality is needed. Abstraction as a style in sculpture is less concerned with expressive content than other sculptural styles. The subject matter may, in fact, be representational, having abstract relationships to other styles of the past. Typical of this style are highly finished surfaces and strong technique. Absurdism. Absurdism in the theatre (20 th century) reflects the loss of faith of its adherents in religion, science, and humanity itself. It sees the world as meaningless and translates that into plays that seem meaningless as well. It is an outgrowth of the philosophy of existentialism. Aleatory. Aleatoric music (mid-20 th century) relies on the elements of chance. In chance music, composers choose pitches, rhythms, and tone colors by random methods such as throwing coins. The composer may ask the performer to choose the ordering of the musical material, or to invent it altogether. Archaic. Archaic style (6 th century B.C.E.) in architecture employs post-and-lintel structure and predominates in temples with imposing vertical posts or columns capped by heavy lintels and a pedimented roof. Fluted, or vertically grooved, columns are also typical. This style has Doric features. Archaic style in painting can be seen in Greek vases. Depictions of the human form appear in three-quarter position, between profile and full frontal. The human eye is depicted fairly realistically. This style also contains

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    vii graduated registers (bands) that contain intricate and graceful geometric designs. Pottery of this style can be divided into two types: black figure , in which the figures appear in black against the natural red background, and red figure, in which the figures appear in the natural red clay against a glazed black background. Archaic Greek style in sculpture mostly represents freestanding statues of nude youths, known as kouroi . They exhibit a stiff, fully frontal pose. The head is raised, eyes are fixed to the front, and arms hang straight down at the sides, with the fists clenched. The emphasis of these statues is on physicality and athleticism. The shoulders are broad, the pectoral muscles well developed, and the waist narrow. The legs show the musculature of a finely tuned athlete with solid buttocks and hardened calves. Features are simplified, and the posture, despite the movement of one foot into the forward plane, is rigid. Fully dressed female forms in this style are known as kore . Art Deco. Art deco (early 20 th century) in architecture began between World Wars I and II. It is an individual decorative arts style that the public particularly liked and helped to make thousands of products commercial successes. The term “art deco” was coined from the name of the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, held in Paris in 1925. The term moderne also came from that title, and the two styles were applied to a variety of products and a style of architecture. The style is characterized by slender forms, straight lines, and a sleekness expressive of modern technology. The style regained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s. Art Nouveau. Art nouveau architecture (late 19 th —early 20 th centuries) is characterized by the lively, serpentine curve known as the “whiplash.” Art nouveau incorporates organic and often symbolic motifs, usually languid-looking flowers and animals, and treats them in a flat, linear, and relief-like manner. Baroque. Baroque style (17 th century) in architecture emphasizes the same contrasts between light and shade and the same action, emotion, opulence, and ornamentation as the other visual arts of the style. Because of its scale, however, architecture’s effect becomes one of great dramatic spectacles. Baroque style in painting appeals to the emotions and to a desire for magnificence through opulent ornamentation. At the same time, it employs a systematic and rational composition in which ornamentation is unified through variation on a single theme. Realism (lifelikeness using selected details) is the objective. Color, grandeur, and dramatic use of light and shade (chiaroscuro) are fairly typical, although the style itself is quite diverse in application. In much of baroque art, sophisticated organizational schemes carefully subordinate and merge one part into the next to create complex but unified wholes. Open composition symbolizes the notion of an expansive universe; the viewer’s eye travels off the canvas to a wider reality. The human figure may be monumental or miniscule. Feeling is emphasized rather than

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    viii form; emotion rather than intellect. This is the style of Rubens and Rembrandt. Baroque style in sculpture emphasizes splendor. Forms and space are charged with energy that carries beyond the confines of the work. As in painting, baroque sculpture invites participation rather than neutral observation. Feeling is the focus. Baroque sculpture tends to treat space pictorially, almost like a painting, to describe action scenes rather than single sculptural forms. Baroque style in music extends from 1600–1750 (slightly longer than in the other arts, in deference to the life spans of J. S. Bach and G. F. Handel). The term “baroque” originally referred to a large, irregularly shaped pearl, and music of this style has many of the same opulent and emotionally appealing characteristics as its siblings of painting, sculpture, and architecture. Baroque composers brought to their music new kinds of action and tension—for example, quick, strong contrasts in tone color or volume, and strict rhythms juxtaposed against free rhythms. This is the music of Bach, Handel, and Vivaldi. Bauhaus. Bauhaus style in architecture (early 20 th century) was a conscious attempt to integrate the arts into a unified statement. The Bauhaus philosophy sought to establish links between the organic and technical worlds and thereby to reduce contrasts between the two. The design principles of Bauhaus produced building exteriors that were completely free of ornamentation. Several juxtaposed, functional materials form the external surface, underscoring the fact that exterior walls are no longer structural, but merely a climate barrier. Byzantine. Byzantine style (6 th through mid-15 th centuries) in architecture follows a fairly typical form consisting of a central dome with a grouping of three apses at the East end. The entire space describes a cross-in-square layout. Byzantine style in two- dimensional art reflects a diversity of approaches. Most commonly, it reflects the hieratic style (typically mosaics and manuscript illuminations). The word hieratic means “holy” or “sacred” and exhibits formal, almost rigid figures designed to inspire reverence and meditation and reflects a strict canon, whereby the human body measures nine heads in height (seven heads gives a lifelike proportion). Classicism. Greek classicism (mid-5 th century B.C.E) in architecture rests, as do all classical styles, on the principles of simplicity, harmony, restraint, proportion, and reason. It finds its best examples in temples like the Parthenon in Athens, Greece. This style is the prototype for buildings throughout western culture, and its balance comes from geometric symmetry and clean, simple lines. Many Greek temples of the classical style are peripteral —that is, surrounded by a single row of columns. The style employs Doric and Ionic orders, with the Corinthian order added in the 4 th century B.C.E. Greek classicism in painting is seen exclusively in vases. The geometric nature of the designs of vase paintings in this style remains from the earlier Archaic, but there is a new sense

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    ix of idealized, but lifelike, reality in figure depiction. Foreshortening (the contracting of lines to produce an illusion of projection in space) occurs, giving the figures a sense of depth that in some cases is strengthened by the use of light and shadow. Four characteristics define the style: (1) the figures are portrayed in simple line drawings; (2) the palette or color scheme is monochromatic—for example, red on black or black on red; (3) the palette depends on earthen tones; and (4) the subject matter is idealized and heroic. Greek classical style in sculpture began with the sculptors Myron and Polyclitus. The human figure is elegantly idealized, with subtle variation in fabric depiction. Balance departs from symmetry: the weight of the figure is slightly shifted to one leg, and the head turns away from the centerline. This produces an S-curve in the figure called contropposto stance. Greek classicism in theatre also pursues the ideals of simplicity, harmony, restraint, proportion, and reason. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides provide the only extant examples. Remains of Greek classical theatres dot the Mediterranean from Athens to Turkey and North Africa. Cubism. Cubism in painting (early 20 th century) violates all usual concepts of two- and three-dimensional perspective. Cubist artists sought to paint “not objects, but the space they engender.” The area around the object becomes an extension of the object itself. Cubist space is typically quite shallow and gives the impression of reaching forward out of the frontal plane toward the viewer. Cubism also found an outlet in architecture . Examples can be found in Prague, Czech Republic. Dada. Dada is an anti-art style (early 20 th century) that was a disillusioned reaction against the horrors of World War I. The word dada is French for hobbyhorse, but the Dadaists accepted it as two nonsense syllables, like one of a baby’s first words. Dada was as much a political protest as an art movement. Epic Theatre. Epic theatre (mid-20 th century) is singularly associated with Bertholt Brecht (1898–1956). Epic theatre draws heavily on expressionism and rests on complex theories about theatre and its relationship to life. It is a revolt against dramatic theatre and attempts to move the audience out of the role of passive spectator and into a more dynamic relationship with the play. It is a highly presentational theatrical style and frequently involves narration and changes of time and place that might be accomplished with nothing more than an explanatory sentence. Expressionism. Expressionism (early 20 th century) in painting traditionally refers to a German movement between 1905 and 1930. It also includes a variety of approaches aimed at eliciting in the viewer the same feelings the artist felt in creating the work. Any element—line, form, color—might be emphasized to elicit this response. Its treatment of subject matter ranges from representational to completely abstract or

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    x nonrepresentational. Expressionism in music stressed intense subjective emotion. It is closely associated with expressionism in painting and explores inner feelings rather than outward appearances. Characteristic of the style in music is harsh dissonance and fragmentation, and the exploitation of extreme registers and unusual instrumental effects. Tonality and traditional chord progressions are avoided. Expressionism in the theatre , unlike its counterparts in visual art and music, proved merely an extension of realism or naturalism, but it did allow playwrights to express their reactions to the universe more fully. The subjective distortions characteristic of expressionism in visual art can be seen most clearly in similar visualization in scenic design or stage settings. Fauvism. Fauvism in painting (early 20 th century) is closely associated with expressionism. The word fauves is French for “wild beasts” and was applied by a critic. Violent distortion and outrageous coloring mark this style, along with two-dimensional surfaces and flat color areas. Futurism. Futurism in sculpture (early 20 th century) utilized new materials and technology to explore three-dimensional space. It sought to destroy the past in order to institute a totally new society and a new art. Its basis rests in the objects of “modern” life and focuses on noise, speed, and mechanical energy—exhilaration. Futurist works follow mechanistic lines and include representations of motion. Gothic. Gothic style (12 th to 13 th centuries) in architecture took many forms, but we know it best through the Gothic cathedral, exemplified by the pointed, lancet, or Gothic arch. In its synthesis of intellect, spirituality, and engineering, the cathedral perfectly expresses the medieval mind. Gothic cathedrals use refined, upward-striving lines to symbolize humanity’s yearning to escape the bounds of earth and enter the mystery of space (the kingdom of heaven). The pointed arch symbolizes Gothic spirituality and engineering practicality. The control of stresses made possible by the Gothic arch allows for larger clerestory windows and more interior light. In Germany, one finds a kind of Gothic construction called hallenkirchen , whose side aisles rise to the full height of the nave, unlike traditional Gothic style wherein the aisles are lower than the nave in order to accommodate clerestory windows in the upper walls of the nave. Gothic sculpture portrays serenity, idealism, and simple naturalism. It has a human quality portraying life as valuable, Christ as a benevolent teacher, and God as awesome in his beauty rather than in his vengeance. Visual images carry over a distance with greater distinctness, and the figures of Gothic sculpture—still predominantly associated with churches—are less entrapped in their material away from their backgrounds than their predecessors.

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    xi Gregorian Chant. Gregorian chant (named for Pope Gregory I [540–604]) comprises a body of sacred—that is, religious—music also called chant, plainchant, or plainsong . Chant was vocal and took the form of a single melodic line (monophony) using notes relatively near each other on the musical scale. The haunting, undulating character of early chant possibly points to Near Eastern origins. Chants were sung in a flexible tempo with unmeasured rhythms following the natural accents of normal Latin speech. Hard Edge. Hard edge (1950s and 1960s), or hard-edged abstraction, in painting emphasizes flat color areas with hard edges that carefully separate one area from another. Essentially, hard edge is an exploration of design for its own sake. High Renaissance. High Renaissance (late 15 th to early 16 th centuries) painting sought a universal ideal through impressive themes and styles. Figures became types rather than individuals as painters sought to capture classical qualities without copying classical works. The impact is stability without immobility, variety without confusion, and definition without dullness. Composition is meticulous and based almost exclusively on geometric devices such as a triangle or an oval. Composition is closed—that is, line, color, and form keep the viewer’s eye continually redirected into the work. This style is the style of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. High Renaissance sculpture also sought a universal ideal through impressive themes and styles. Figures became types rather than individuals and measurement became subordinate to judgment when establishing proportions. Surface texture takes on the soft luster of actual flesh in its high polish. The dominant figure of this style is Michelangelo. Impressionism. Impressionism (19 th century) in painting followed the realists’ search for spontaneity, harmonious colors, subjects from everyday life, and faithfulness to observed lighting and atmospheric effects by seeking to capture the psychological perception of reality in color and motion. The concentration is on the effects of natural light on objects and atmosphere. Impressionists emphasize the presence of color within shadows and the result of color and light making an “impression” on the retina. Impressionism in music is an anti-romantic style analogous to impressionism in painting. It freely challenges traditional tonality. The use of tone color in impressionist music has been described as “wedges of color.” Oriental influence is also present. Melodic development occurs in short motifs and harmony moves away from traditional chordal harmonies. A chord is considered strictly on the merits of its expressive capabilities, apart from any idea of tonal progression within a key. Gliding chords—that is, repetition of a chord up and down the scale—is a hallmark of impressionism in music.

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    xii International Style. International style in architecture (mid-20 th century) typically consists of the glass and steel rectangular skyscraper, also referred to as “modern architecture.” Islamic. Islamic style in architecture (7 th century onward) typically employs the horseshoe or Moorish arch. The style is found throughout the Middle East and in southern Spain, with later derivatives throughout Europe and America. When applied to a mosque, the most distinguishing feature becomes the narrow, circular minaret, or tower, from which a muezzin offers the call to prayer five times daily. Jazz. Jazz (originating early 20 th century and ongoing) began as a combination of elements from many cultures, including West African, American, and European. Mostly, its creators were African-American musicians who performed in the streets, bars, brothels, and dance halls of New Orleans and other southern cities. It is highly improvisational in nature and typically employs syncopated rhythm, a steady beat, and distinctive tone colors and performance techniques. It contains a number of sub-styles such as Dixieland, swing, bebop, cool jazz, free jazz, and jazz rock. Typically jazz is performed by small combos ranging from three to eight players or by “big bands” of ten to fifteen players. The rhythm section (piano, plucked double bass, and percussion) tends to be the backbone of the jazz ensemble. Mannerism. Mannerist (mid- to late 16 th century) architecture utilizes discomfiting designs of superficial detail and unusual proportions, with juxtapositions of curvilinear and rectilinear items. Decorative detail is applied to exterior wall surfaces in the Renaissance fashion, but flattened domes and shallow arches replace mathematical proportions. Mannerist painting takes its name from the mannered or affected appearance of the subjects in the paintings. These works are coldly formal and inward looking. Their unlifelike proportions, icy stares, and subjective viewpoint can be puzzling and intriguing when seen out of context. Mannerism has an intellectual component that distorts reality, alters space, and often makes obscure cultural allusions. It contains anti-classical emotionalism and abandons classical balance and form while employing formality and geometry. Minimalism. Minimalism in painting and sculpture (1950s and 1960s) sought to reduce the complexity of both design and content as far as possible. Minimalist artists concentrated on nonsensual, impersonal, geometric shapes and forms. No communication was to pass between artist and respondent; no message was to be conveyed. Rather, the minimalists wanted to present neutral objects free of their own interpretations and leave response and “meaning” entirely up to the viewer. Minimalism in music (1960s) was a reaction against the complexity of serialism and the

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    xiii randomness of aleatory music. Minimalist music has a steady pulse, clear tonality, and persistent repetition of short melodic patterns. It also employs a static quality in dynamics, texture, and harmony, the effect of which tends to be trance-like and hypnotic. Modern. Modernism (mid-20 th century) in architecture is a style blurred by the contributions of architectural firms rather than individual architects. What is considered “modernism” in architecture generally consists of the glass and steel rectangular skyscraper also identified as “International Style.” There is more, however, than the simple straight line and functional structure. Modern architecture consists of a variety of explorations of space and line including curvilinear treatments and highly symbolic exploration of form. Although the term “modern dance” defies accurate definition, it remains the most appropriate label for the nonballetic tradition that Martha Graham came to symbolize. Yet, principally because it tried so hard to be different from formal ballet, modern dance also developed its own conventions. Ballet movements were largely rounded and symmetrical. Therefore, modern dancers emphasized angularity and asymmetry. Ballet stressed leaps and based its line on toe work, while modern dance hugged the floor and dancers went barefoot. As a result, the early works of Graham and others tended to be more fierce and earthy and less graceful. Beneath it all was the desire to express emotion. Martha Graham described her choreography as “a graph of the heart.” Musique Actuelle. Musique actuelle (1990s) is improvised music freely drawing on jazz and rock and eliciting vibrancy, liveliness, and personal expression. Its literal translation means “current,” and it represents a number of sub-factions from various localities. Always in musique actuelle there seems to be a strain of humor. Naturalism. Naturalism in the theatre (late 19 th century) is a style closely related to realism. It also insisted on the truthful depiction of life, but naturalism went on to insist on the basic principle that behavior is determined by heredity and environment. Absolute objectivity, not personal opinion, was the naturalist’s goal. Naturalism in opera (late 19 th century) was a counter-reaction to Romanticism. It opposed stylization, although it maintained exotic settings and included brute force and immorality. Its texts are in prose rather than poetry, and its settings appear lifelike. Neo-abstraction. Neo-abstraction (mid-1980s) is a conglomerate style, like postmodernism, comprising mostly individualistic approaches. Like the postmodernists, the neo-abstractionists borrow freely from others by modifying or changing the scale, media, or color of older works to give them a new framework and,

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    xiv hence, new meaning. Occasionally, the new meanings include sarcasm and satire and often comment on the decadence of American society in the 1980s. Neoclassicism. Architectural neoclassicism (18 th century) sought to embrace the complex philosophical concerns of the 18 th century Enlightenment. The result is a series of styles and sub-styles. Neoclassicism offered a new way of examining the past. Eclectic, as well as historical, architectural neoclassicism exhibits a variety of treatments of forms of Greek and Roman classicism—for example, clearly stated Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian porches with pedimented rooflines. Neoclassicism in painting (18 th century) reflects a perception of grandeur in antiquity. Classical details appear selectively. Often, the style is characterized by starkness of outline, strong geometric composition, and smooth color areas and gradations reflecting the formality of the classical tradition. The details of neoclassical paintings move toward the surface, appearing as if in a shallow picture box defined by simple architectural frameworks. Neoclassicism in sculpture (18 th century), like painting, reflects a perception of grandeur in antiquity. It frequently manifests itself in life-sized portrait busts that exhibit acute psychological observation and accurate technical execution. Works in this style seem to pursue truth through lifelikeness. Neoclassical theatre is a style occurring simultaneously with Baroque style in music, visual art, and architecture (1550–1720). The term “neoclassicism” or “new” classicism refers to the attempt by the French literary Academy to recreate the dramatic structure of Greek classical playwrights such as Sophocles. Plays of this style had to be written according to specific “rules” thought to adhere to the “Unities” described by Aristotle. Specifically, the action of the play must occur in a single location and encompass no more than 24 hours. The major playwrights of this style were the tragedians Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine, with Molière providing comedies set in baroque ambiance. Musical classicism (18 th century) rejected what was seen as excessive ornamentation and complexity in Baroque music and aimed toward a broad audience appeal. The style, reflecting the ideals of general classicism, sought to achieve order, simplicity, and careful attention to form. The style is called “classical” rather than neoclassical because music had no classical (Greek or Roman) antecedents to which it could turn. It is, thus, classical in ideal rather than model. The classical style in music exhibits five basic characteristics: (1) variety and contrast in mood; (2) flexibility of rhythm; (3) predominantly homophonic texture; (4) memorable melody; and (5) gradual changes in dynamics. Neoclassicism in music (20 th century) is marked by emotional restraint, balance, and clarity. Neoclassical music utilizes forms and stylistic features of earlier periods, particularly the 18 th century. It, however, does not merely revive earlier classical music. Rather, it uses earlier techniques to organize modern harmonies and rhythms. Much neoclassical music is modeled on J. S. Bach, giving rise to the conclusion that neobaroque might also be a fair description. The two principal composers in this style are Stravinsky and Hindemith.

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    xv Neo-expressionism. Neo-expressionism (late 20 th century) is a controversial movement that tends to record images “that the rest of us repress.” Typically, paintings of this style force the viewer to confront what may be considered repulsive images. Like the expressionists, neo-expressionists seek to evoke a particular emotional response in the viewer. Op Art. Op art (late 20 th century) in painting plays on the possibilities offered by optics and perception. Op art is an intellectually-oriented and systematic style, very scientific in its applications. Based on perceptual tricks, the misleading images in these paintings capture the viewer’s curiosity and pull them into a conscious exploration of what the optical illusion does and why it does it. Pop Art. Pop art (1950s) in painting concerned itself, above all, with representational images. The term “pop” was coined by the English critic Lawrence Alloway, and means, simply, that the subjects of these paintings are found in popular culture. The treatments of pop art also came from mass culture and commercial design. Post-impressionism. Post-impressionism in painting (late 19 th century) is a collection of disparate styles. In subject matter, post-impressionism is similar to impressionism— landscapes, familiar portraits, groups, and café and nightclub scenes imbued with a complex and profoundly personal significance. It is an “art for art’s sake” philosophy full of subjective impressions. Post-impressionism seeks a return to form and structure in painting, and utilizes formal patterning with clean color areas. Postmodernism. In the arts, postmodernism (late 20 th century; “pomo” for short) is distinguished by eclecticism and anachronism, in which works may reflect and comment on a wide range of stylistic expressions and cultural-historical viewpoints. Often this results in an embrace of normlessness and cultural chaos, as well as a conscious attempt to break down distinctions between “high art” and popular culture. One example is performance art , which often involves a provocative mingling of musical, literary, and visual sources. The artist’s self-conscious display of technique and artifice puts self-reference at the center of creation and presentation. Postmodern or “revisionist” architecture takes, without copying, different themes from the past, but in an eclectic manner, seizing certain moments in history and juxtaposing them. Postmodern architecture focuses on meaning and symbolism. Function no longer dictates form. Buildings explore the context of society and the environment. Its goals are social identity, cultural continuity, and sense of place. Postmodernism in visual arts is, likewise, highly individualistic, although some artists prefer to return art to the anonymity of pre-Renaissance times. One recognizable aspect of post-modernist styles appears to be a desire to return recognizable content or meaning to works of art, and

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    xvi the artists following these paths were reacting to what they felt was a clutter and lack of content in previous styles. One common theme apparently shared by postmodernists is a basic concern for how art functions in society. Postmodernism in dance , like the other arts, seeks the interrelationships between art and life. Typically, it rejects traditional choreography and technique in favor of open-ended scores and ordinary movement. Prairie Style. Prairie Style in architecture (early 20 th century) is a style singular to the architect Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959). The style relies on strong horizontal lines, in imitation of the flatness of the American prairies, and insists on the integration of the context of the building and the creation of indoor space that is an extension of outdoor space. Precisionism. Precisionism in painting (early 20 th century) is the arrangement of real objects into abstract groupings. These paintings often use the strong vibrant colors of commercial art and constitute a forerunner of Pop Art. Primary Structures. Primary Structures (late 20 th century) is a movement in sculpture that pursues two major goals: extreme simplicity of shapes and a kinship with architecture. A space-time relationship distinguishes primary structures from other sculpture. Viewers are invited to share an experience in three-dimensional space in which they can walk around and/or through the works. Form and content are reduced to their most “minimal” qualities. Realism. Realism in painting (19 th century) sought to make an objective and unprejudiced record of the customs, ideas, and appearances of contemporary society. By selectively choosing details, realism in painting sought to go beyond the obvious to a deeper sense of reality. This was done through spontaneity, harmonious colors, subjects from everyday life, and faithfulness to observed lighting and atmospheric effects. Realism in the theatre (mid-19 th century) sought a truthful portrayal of the world. Objectivity was stressed, and knowledge of the real world was seen as possible only through direct observation (similar to painting). Thus, everyday life, with which the playwright was directly familiar, became the subject matter of dramas. The focus was on human motives and experience. Renaissance. Renaissance (14 th to 15 th centuries) architecture sought to capture the forms and ideals of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and follow human rather than ecclesiastical principles and potentials. Three principal changes separate Renaissance style from its predecessors: (1) there is a mechanical and geometric revival of Roman buildings; (2) decorative detail appears on the facades of buildings; and (3) structural systems are hidden from view. Painting in the Renaissance style has a gravity and

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    xvii monumentality that makes figures seem larger than life-size. The use of deep perspective and modeling to create dramatic contrasts gives solidity to the figures and unifies the paintings. Atmospheric perspective enhances deep spatial naturalism. Figures are strong, detailed, and very human. At the same time, the composition carefully subordinates the parts of the painting to the whole. Renaissance sculpture reflects a newly developed skill in creating images of great lifelikeness, but the goal of Renaissance sculptors, unlike the classical Greeks, was not to idealize human form but to portray it in a more complex, balanced, and action-filled dimension. Relief sculpture of this style found new ways of representing deep space through the systematic use of perspective. Freestanding sculpture dominated and exhibited a focus on anatomy. Renaissance sculpture’s best examples are those of Donatello and Ghiberti. Rock and Roll (Rock). Rock and Roll (1950s) or Rock, as it later became known, includes a variety of sub-styles including Soul and Punk. Rock is typically vocal music with a hard, driving beat in quadruple meter with strong accents on the second and fourth beats. It often features electric guitar accompaniment and heavy amplification of sound and is usually written in a 12-bar blues form. It is an outgrowth of rhythm and blues and country and western. Soul music is a variety of rock and roll emerging in the 1960s from black performers and emphasizes emotionality, gospel, and the African- American experience. Punk, or New Wave , is a primitive form of rock and roll. Rhythm and blues is a dance music of African-Americans that joins blues, jazz and gospel styles. Country and Western is a folk-like, guitar-based style typically associated with rural white America. Rococo. Rococo style (18 th century) in architecture , unlike most previous architectural styles, was primarily a style of interior design. Its refinement and decorativeness applied to furniture and décor more than to exterior structure or even detail. At this time in history, the aristocracy lived principally in attached row houses and simply had no exteriors to design. The result was a delicate style with pseudonatural effects typified by curved leg furniture, cornices, and gilded carvings creating a pleasant atmosphere of grace and propriety. Rococo style in painting is essentially a decorous style exhibiting intimate grace, charm, and delicate superficiality. Its scenes portray lively effervescence and melodrama with predominant themes of love, friendship, sentiment, pleasure, and sincerity. A frivolous “naughtiness” often pervades paintings of this style. Rococo style in sculpture , like painting, is decorous, intimate, graceful, charming, and delicately superficial. Cupids, nymphs, and Venus, the goddess of love, are frequent subjects, and their mythological character usually has a contemporary meaning. Love, friendship, sentiment, and pleasure are frequent themes, as in painting. The scale of Rococo sculpture is less monumental than the Baroque. It often takes the

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