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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition

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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 1 preview imageChapter 1: Managers and Economics1CHAPTER 1: MANAGERS AND ECONOMICSOVERVIEWThis chapter introduces students to economics and how managerial decisions are affected by bothmicroeconomics and macroeconomic factors.Microeconomics is the study of how consumers,firms and industries makedecisionsregarding the products that they buy and sell. Macroeconomicsis the study of the overall level of economic activity, including topics such as changes in the pricelevel, unemployment and economic growth.The case study on the global automobile industrydemonstrates howmanagerialdecisions are influenced by changingmicroeconomic andmacroeconomic variables.Microeconomic influences include how consumer behavior affectsrevenues, and how technology and the market structure affect the costs of production.Macroeconomic influences include changes in aggregate spending in the economy, monetary andfiscal policies as well as outside influences in the rest of the world.OUTLINE OF TEXT MATERIALI.Managers and EconomicsA.Motivate why managers should study economics.B.Managers need to understand both microeconomics and macroeconomics as theymake decisions.C.The textbook presents both areas and integratesthemfrom a managerial standpoint.II.Case for Analysis:Micro-and Macroeconomic Influences on the Global AutomobileIndustry.The case illustrates howmicroeconomicand macroeconomic factors influencemanagerial decisions.A.Macroeconomic points:1.The case demonstrates how a manufacturing industry is influenced by thecurrency exchange rate(a)A strong Japanese yen and a weak US dollar motivate the Japaneseauto makers to shift their production to the US2.The case demonstrates the impact of foreign investment on the economy
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 2 preview image
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 3 preview imageChapter 1: Managers and Economics2(a)Investments by the Japanese auto makers into the US economyhelped expedite the economic recovery and employment growth inthe US3.The case illustrated how the recovery of the US economy impacts thedemand for new vehicles (implying that new cars are a normal good).B.Microeconomic points:1.The case uses the example of China to demonstrate how consumerpreferences influence production differentiation.2.The case also shows how competition induces businesses to innovate andintroduce new product characteristic (the use of Sync entertainmentsystems).3.The case shows how competition between the auto makers influences themarket for the inputs (auto parts).III.Two Perspectives:Microeconomics and MacroeconomicsA.Microeconomics: Branch of economics that analyzes the decisions of individualconsumers, firms and industries.Microeconomics is analogous to viewing a detailedpicture of the economy under the microscope.1.Prices, amounts of money charged for goods and services in the economy,influence the behavior of consumers and producers.2.Prices of outputs and inputs (land, labor capital, raw materials,entrepreneurship) affect production decisions of firms.3.Managerial Economics: Microeconomics applied to managerial decisionsof businesses.B.Macroeconomics: Branch ofeconomics that focuses on overall economic activity.Macroeconomics is analogous to viewing a big picture of the economy from 30,000feetin the air.1.Changes in the overall price leveland amount of unemploymentaffectconsumers and producers at the aggregatelevel.Teaching Tip: Point out to the students that the study of economics starts withlearning a whole new vocabulary. Make sure that students understand thedistinction of microeconomics and macroeconomics. Use thecase of analysisat the
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 4 preview imageChapter 1: Managers and Economics3start of the chapterto ask themwhich factors are microeconomic ormacroeconomic.IV.Microeconomic Influences on ManagersA.Relative Price: The price of one good in relation to the price of another good.1.Consumers respond to relative prices (prices of Japanese cars relative tothose of their US competitors)2.Businesses choose their input combinations based on the relative prices ofthe inputs (wages in Japan relative to wages in the US; the price of onematerial versus the price of a substitute material and so on)3.Non-price factors and their impact on the cost to the consumer (the cost offinancing a car purchase)B.Product specifications and the consumer preferences (Chinese market versus USmarket)Teaching Tip:Make sure the students understand what relative prices are ratherthan absolute prices. A good example is a trip toWal-Mart or anygrocery storewhen one decides how expensive a particular product is by comparing prices ofsimilar products. An example is the comparison of the prices of oranges tograpefruit.C.The strategic decisions of managers depend on the market structure.1.Markets: The mechanisms used for the buying and selling of products.There are four markets used in microeconomics,ranging from perfectcompetition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly, to monopoly.2.Perfect Competition: Market structure characterized by a large number offirms that sell an undifferentiated product, with easy entry into the marketand complete information available for all participants.(a)Each firm is considered a “price-taker” that has no influence on themarket price of the product.(b)Profits signal new firms to enter the market until all profits arecompeted away as new firms enter the market to capture the excessprofit.(c)Profit:Total revenue to the firm from the sales of its product minusthe total cost of production.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 5 preview imageChapter 1: Managers and Economics43.Market Power: Ability of a firm to influence the market price of its productand strategies to earn large profits over time.4.Imperfect Competition: Market structures of monopoly, oligopoly andmonopolistic competition in which firms have some market power.5.Monopoly:Market structure characterized by a single firm producing agood with no close substitutes.(a)Barriers to entry (structural, legal or regulatory) exist that preventother firms from entering the market easily.(b)A firm with market power is considered a “price maker” and has tolower prices to sell more output.6.Monopolistic Competition: Market structure in which many firms havesome degree of market power and produce differentiated products.7.Oligopoly: Market structure in which a small number of large firmsdominate the market. These firms have market power but must considertheir rivals’ actions into account when developing strategies.8.In thecase of analysis,Ford, GM, Honda, Toyota and their majorcompetitors aremultinational firms that have significant market power andare not perfectly competitive.Teaching Tip: Discuss the different markets in our economy and have the studentsdecide which of the four market structures each belongs to. For example, whatmarket structures do the following belong to: wheat, clothing, cereal,soft drink,auto, and local electricity?D.The goal of firms is profit maximization.Firms develop strategies to earn thehighest profits possible.V.Macroeconomic Influences on ManagersA.The circular flow model demonstrates the flow of expenditures between householdsand firms at the aggregate level.1.Consumers buy goods and services produced by firms in theoutputmarket.2.Consumers supply inputs (land, labor, capital equipment andentrepreneurship) to firms in the resource market. They receive paymentsfor these inputs in the form of wages, rent, interest and profits.3.Absolute Price Level: Measure of the overall price level in the economy.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 6 preview imageChapter 1: Managers and Economics5Teaching Tip:Make sure the students understand what the absolute price level is.The Consumer Price Index is one such measure that is constructed from the pricesof various goods and services.B.The circular flow model is used to analyze spending behavior in the economy.1.Gross Domestic Product(GDP):The comprehensive measure of the totalmarket value of all currently produced final goods and services within acountry in a given period of time by domestic and foreign suppliedresources:(a)Personal Consumption Expenditures (C)by households on durableand non-durable goods and services.(b)Gross Private Domestic Investment Spending (I)on non-residentialstructures, equipment, and software in addition to residentialstructures and inventories.(c)Government Consumption Expenditures and Gross Investment (G)atthe federal, state and local levels.(d)Net Export Spending (F), or Export Spending (X) minus ImportSpending (M).2.GDP=C+I+G+F or GDP=C+I+G+(X-M)C.Factors affecting macro spending behavior.1.Changes in consumption and investment behavior in the private sector.2.Monetary policy andfiscal policy.(a)Monetary Policy:Policies adapted by the country’s central bank thatinfluence the money supply, interest rates, and the amount of fundsavailable for loans, which , in turn, influence consumer and businessspending.(b)Fiscal Policy:Changes in taxing and spending by the executive andlegislative branches of a country’s national government that can beused to either stimulate or restrain the economy.3.Changes in the foreign sector includingthe exchange rate (the US dollarexchange rate against the Japanese yen and the implications on thebehavior of the Japanese auto makers).
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 7 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices6CHAPTER 2: DEMAND, SUPPLY AND EQUILIBRIUMPRICESOVERVIEWThis chapter introduces students tothe important concepts of demand and supply.The chapter usesexamples to illustrate how changes in non-price factors impact demand, supply, and the resultingmarket equilibrium.Demand is the relationship between price and the quantity demanded of a goodby consumers in a given period of time, all other factors held constant. Supply is the relationshipbetween price and the quantity supplied of a good by producers in a given period of time, all otherfactors held constant.The discussion uses graphical and algebraic methods. The chapter beginswith a case of analysis (Demand and Supply inThe Copper Industry) which demonstrateshowdemand and supply factors influencedthecoppersupplyand demand and how changes in thesefunctions impactthemarketprice of copper.OUTLINE OF TEXT MATERIALI.Introduction(outlines the chapter content and defines the main concepts: Demand andSupply)A.Demand: Functional relationship between the price and quantity demanded of goodsand services by consumers in a given period of time, all else equal.B.Supply: Functional relationship between the price and quantity supplied of goodsand services by producers in a given period of time, all else equal.C.Managers need to understand demand and supply to develop competitive strategiesand respond to the actions of competitors.D.The chapter covers verbal, graphical and mathematical analyses of demand andsupply.II.Case for Analysis:Demand and Supply in the Copper IndustryA.The caseuses the global copper market during19972011 as an illustration of howvarious factors influence the copper demand,supply, and equilibrium.The objective
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 8 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices7of the case is to illustrate how the non-price factors can cause demand and/or supplyto changes. Two important points are being emphasized. One, identifying whetherthe factor is on the demand side or the supply sideof the market. Two, whether thefactor causes the relevant function to increase or decrease. The discussion alsocontrasts changes in demand/supply with changes in quantity demanded/supplied.(Teaching Tip: after the chapter is covered, the students can be asked to findexamples in the case that cause changes in quantity demanded [any factorschanging the supply]).B.Changes in quantity demanded-a responsein consumer behaviorto a change in theprice. The case shows (page 17, paragraph 3) that a higher price of copperencourages copper consumers to switch to other substitutes (such as plastic andaluminum)C.Changes in quantity supplieda producer’s response to a change in theprice. Thecase demonstrates (page 18, first full paragraph) that higher copper prices encouragesuppliers of copper to mine lower grade copper.D.Demand for copper factors discussed in the case include (changes in demand):1.The impact of the macroeconomic conditions in China2.The impact of a global economic slowdown3.The impact of the expectations about the future(a)Changes in initial unemployment claims in the US(b)Expectations of stabilization policy in the EUE.Supply for copper factors discussed in the case include (changes in supply)1.Labor issues and labor strikes at important mining facilities2.Natural disasters affecting production centers (a massive earthquake hittingChile in 2010).F.Copper is widely used in manufacturing and construction. As a result, the coppermarketis an indicator of the state of the global economy(a coincident indicator).III.DemandA.Demand: Functional relationship between the price and quantity demanded of goodsand services by consumers in a given period of time, all elseheld constant.B.Non-price factors influence demand, causing either an increase or a decrease indemand. These factors are the following.1.Tastes and Preferences(a)A favorable change in the taste for good X increases its demand.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 9 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices8Teaching Tip: The text has concrete examples of tastesand preferences. For instance,after September 11, 2001, airlineshave used different marketing strategies to encouragemore people to fly.The advertising message shifted to safety of flying because it was thesafety concern that was responsible for the decline in the demand.2.Income(a)Normal Good:A productwhose demand will increase with anincrease in income.(b)Inferior Good: A productwhose demand will decrease with anincrease in income.Teaching Tip:Make sure the students understand the difference between normal andinferior goods.Normal and inferior goods are differently impacted by recessions. Useexamples like new cars versus fast food as illustrations. The textbook examples includejewelry, gourmet pet food, dollar general stores.Ask the students to come upwith otherexamples of inferior goods asthey have better and interesting examples.Ask them howrevenues of inferior goods producers are expected to be affected by economic recessionsand expansions.3.Prices of Related Goods(a)Substitute Goods: Products that can be used in place ofoneanother.An increase in the price of a substitute good, Y, causes an increase inthe demand for good X.(b)Complementary Goods:Products that are used together.A decreasein the price of a complementary good, Y, causes an increase in thedemand for good X.Teaching Tip: Make sure the students understand the difference between substitutegoods and complementary goods. The examples used in the textare iPods andlaptops that serve as substitutes for wristwatches, palladium as a cheap substitutefor platinum and personal computers being complementary to printers and printercartridges.Ask the students to come up with other examples of substitute goodsandcomplementary goods.4.Future Expectations(a)An expected increase in the future price of good X will increase itscurrent demand.(b)This was demonstrated in the world grain prices in 2007and in steelprices in 2011.5.Number of Consumers
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 10 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices9(a)An increase in the number of buyers of good X will increasethemarketdemandfor X.The illustration provided is that of the US timberindustry during 2007-2011. During this time the entry by Chinese buyers oftimber into the US market helped the US timber industry compensate for thedecline in the domestic demand (due to a drop in housing construction).C.Demand Function: Functionrepresented by QXD= f (PX, T, I, PY, PZ, EXC, NC, ...)where:QXD= quantity demanded of XPX= price of XT=variables representing an individual’s tastes and preferencesI= incomePY, PZ= prices of goods Y and Z, which are related in consumption to good XEXC= consumer expectations about future pricesNC= number of consumers1.Individual Demand Function:Function that shows the variables that affectan individual consumer’s quantity demanded of a particular product.2.Market Demand Function:Function that shows the variables that affect allconsumers’ quantity demanded of a particular product in the market.D.Demand Curve: The graphical relationship between thepriceof a good (P)and thequantity demandedby consumers (Q), with all other factors influencing demandheld constant.1.Demand Shifters: The variables in a demand function that are heldconstant when defining a given demand curve. If their values change, thedemand curve would shift.2.Price is on the vertical axis and quantity demanded is on the horizontalaxis.3.Demand curves are generally downward sloping.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 11 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices104.Price and quantity demanded have a negative relationship.E.Change in Quantity Demanded and Change in Demand1.Change in Quantity Demanded: Movementalonga demand curve whenconsumers react to a change in the price of the product, all other factorsheld constant.This is illustrated in Figure 2.1.2.Change in Demand: Movement of the entire demand curve whenconsumers react to a change in factors other than the price of the productchanging.This is illustrated in Figure 2.2.Teaching Tip: Make sure the students understand the distinction between a changein quantity demanded versus a change in demand.Although the difference in thewording seems trivial, these two concepts are quite different. The price of theproduct itself is the only determinant of a change in quantity demanded. All otherfactors are determinants of a change in demand.F.The market demand curve can be derived by horizontal summation of the individualdemand curves.1.Horizontal Summation: For every price, add the quantity that eachindividual in a market demands.2.A simple example is when there are two individuals in a market. This isillustrated in Figure 2.3.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 12 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices11G.Linear Demand Function and Curves1.Linear Demand Function: Mathematical relationship in which all terms areadded or subtracted.2.The graph of a linear demand curve is a straight line.H.Math Example of a Demand Function(for copper at the beginning of 2010)1.Equation 2.2: QD=3-2PC+0.2I+1.6TC+0.4Ewhere:QD= quantity demandedof copper (millions of pounds)PC= price of copper ($ per pound)I= consumer income indexTC= telecom index showing uses or tastes for copper in thetelecommunications industryE=expectation index representing purchaser’s expectations of a lower priceover the following six months2.The negative coefficienton PCshows aninverse relationship between priceand quantity demanded forcopper.3.The positive coefficient on I shows that copper is a normal good.4.The positive coefficient on TC showsthatimproved technologyand greaterdemand for telecom services leadto higher demand.5.The negative coefficient on E shows that expectations of lower price leadsto an increased demand for copper in the future but a decreased demand forcopperfor the current period.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 13 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices126.Equation 2.3: QD=15-2PCis the alternative demand equation that is derivedafter substituting values for I, TC and E. Itillustrates the meaning of theexpression, “all else equal.”IV.SupplyA.Supply: Functional relationship between the price and quantity supplied of goodsand services by producers in a given period of time, all else equal.B.Non-price factors influence the cost of production, causing either an increase or adecrease in supply. These factors are the following.1.State of Technology(a)Better technology allows for a more efficient use of resources,increasing supply.2.Input Prices(a)Lower prices of inputs (labor, capital, land and raw materials) lead toa reduction in the production cost and an increase in supply.3.Prices of Goods Related in Production(a)Substitute Goods:The same inputs can be used to produce one goodover another. An increase in the price of a substitute good, Y, causesan increase in the production of good X.(b)Complementary Goods: Products that are produced together. Adecrease in the price of a complementary good, Y, causes an increasein the production of good X.Teaching Tip: Students sometimes getconfused between prices of related goods thataffect demand and theprices of goods related inproductionthat affect supply.Make surethatthey understand the distinctions that come from the demand orsupply side of the market.4.Future Expectations(a)An expected decrease in the future price of good X will increase itscurrent supply.5.Number of Producers(a)An increase in the number of sellers of good X will increase itssupply.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 14 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices13(b)Changes in laws or regulations including trade barriers (quotas andtariffs) can also achieve the same result.C.Supply Function: Function represented by QXS= f (PX, TX, PI, PA, PB, EXP, NP, ...)where:QXS= quantity supplied of XPX= price of XTX=state of technologyPI= prices of inputs of productionPA, PB= prices of goods A and B, which are related in production of good XEXP= producer expectations about future pricesNP= number of producersD.Supply Curve: The graphical relationship between the price of a good (P) and thequantity supplied by producers (Q), with all other factors influencing supplyheldconstant.1.Supply Shifters: The variables in a supply function that are held constantwhen defining a given supply curve. If their values change, the supplycurve would shift.2.Price is onthe vertical axis and quantity suppliedis on the horizontal axis.3.Supply curves are generally upward sloping.4.Price and quantity suppliedhave a positive relationship.E.Change in Quantity Supplied and Change in Supply
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 15 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices141.Change in Quantity Supplied: Movementalonga supply curve whenproducers react to a change in the price of the product, all other factorsheld constant. This is illustrated in Figure 2.4.2.Change in Supply: Movement of the entire supply curve when producersreact to a change in factors other than the price of the product changing.This is illustrated in Figure 2.5.Factors capable of shifting a supply curve(changes in supply) include technological changes that increase inputproductivity, changes in input costs, changes in the prices of related inproduction goods, changes in producer’s expectations.F.Math Example of a Supply Function1.Equation 2.5: QS=-5+8PC-0.5W+0.4T+0.5Nwhere:QS= quantity supplied of copper (millions of pounds)PC= price of copper ($ per pound)W= an index of wage rates in the copper industryT= technology indexN= number of active mines in the copper industry.2.The positive coefficient on PCshows apositive relationship between priceand quantity supplied of copper.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 16 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices153.The negative coefficient on W shows that astheinput price increases,supply decreases due to costly production.4.The positive coefficient on T shows that an increase in technologyincreases the supply of copper.5.The positive coefficient on N shows that an increase in the number ofactive mines increases the supply of copper.6.Equation 2.6: QS=-25+8PCis the alternative supply equation that isderived after substituting values for W, T and N. It illustrates the meaningof the expression, “all else equal.”G.Summary of Demand and Supply Factors1.Table 2.1 provides a summary of the discussionV.Demand, Supply and EquilibriumA.When the market is in equilibrium, there is an equilibrium price and quantity.Thisis illustrated in Figure 2.6.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 17 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices161.Equilibrium Price(PE):The price that actually exists in the market (ortoward which the market is moving) where the quantity demanded byconsumers equals the quantity supplied by producers.2.Equilibrium Quantity(QE):The quantity of a good, determined by theequilibrium price, where the amount of output that consumers demand isequal to the amount that producers want to supply.B.Lower-than-equilibrium priceswould result in a shortage of the good, as the quantitydemanded exceeds the quantity supplied. This is illustrated in Figure 2.7.C.Higher-than-equilibrium prices would result in a surplus of the good, as the quantitysupplied exceeds the quantity demanded. This is illustrated in Figure 2.8.D.Math Example of Equilibrium1.Equation 2.3: QD=15-2PC2.Equation 2.6: QS=-25+8PC3.In equilibrium, there is only one quantity where QD=QS. Equating the twoequations lead toan equilibrium price of $4.00andan equilibrium quantityof7million pounds.E.Changes in Equilibrium Prices and Quantities
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 18 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices171.Achangein demand results from a change in tastes and preferences,income, prices of related goods, expectations or the number of consumers.This alters themarketequilibrium in the following ways.(a)An increase in demand(D0to D1)raises the equilibrium price andraises the equilibrium quantity. This is illustrated in Figure 2.9.(b)A decrease in demand(D0to D2) lowersthe equilibrium price andlowers theequilibrium quantity. This is illustrated in Figure 2.9.2.A change in supply results from a change in technology, input prices,prices of goods related in production, expectations, or the number ofsuppliers. This alters themarketequilibrium in the following ways.(a)An increase in supply (S0to S1) lowers the equilibrium price andraises the equilibrium quantity. This is illustrated in Figure 2.10.(b)A decrease in supply (S0to S2) raises the equilibrium price andlowers the equilibrium quantity. This is illustrated in Figure 2.10.3.The effects of changes in both sides of the marketon the equilibrium priceand quantitydepend on the sizes of the shifts of the demand and supplycurves.4.An increase indemand and a decrease in supply raise the equilibrium pricebut the effect on the equilibrium quantity is indeterminate. This isillustrated in Figures 2.11 and 2.12.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 19 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices185.An increase indemand andan increase in supply raise the equilibriumquantitybut the effect on the equilibrium priceis indeterminate. This isillustrated in Figures 2.13 and 2.14.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 20 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices19F.Math Example of an Equilibrium Change(continuation of the prior setup of thecopper market in 20101.Startwith an initial equilibrium price of $4.00and an initial equilibriumquantity of 7million poundsat the beginning of 2010.2.Assume that the US and European economic weaknesses causecancellation of copper ordersduring 2010-2011.Assume that a decreasein the demand for copperthat resulted from the weaknessesinthe US andEuropewas not offset by an increase in the demand for copper from China.This causes several of the relevant to the market demand factorstochange:the income index (I) to decrease from 20 to 14, the telecom index (TC)decreases from 2.5 to 1.875, the expectations index (E) decreases from 100to 80.3.Supply side factors are also allowed to change.Assume that the wageindex (W) decreases from 100 to 98, the technology index increases from50 to 55, NP increases from 20 to 28 (due to a release of copper stockpilein China).4.Substituting for new values offor the above listed factors into the demandand supply equations results in the new equilibrium price is $3.00and the
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 21 preview imageChapter 2: Demand, Supply and Equilibrium Prices20new equilibrium quantity is 6million pounds.This isalsoillustratedgraphicallyin Figure 2.15.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 22 preview imageChapter 3: DemandElasticities21CHAPTER 3: DEMAND ELASTICITIESOVERVIEWThischapter introduces students to the concept of elasticity of demand.A demand elasticitymeasures how consumerdemand respondsto changes in avariable in thedemand function.Theprice elasticity of demand is the key elasticity measure discussed in this chapter.It measures thesensitivity of the consumer’s behavior to changes in the price of the product by dividing thepercentage change in the quantity demanded by the percentage change in the price that induced thechange in the quantity demanded.Thecase for analysis demonstrates on the example of Procter andGamble Co. how a company’s pricing policies depend on how consumers respond to price changes.The other elasticity measures introduced in this chapter are the income and cross-priceelasticitiesof demand. In addition, the appendix presents the standard economic model of consumer choice.OUTLINE OF TEXT MATERIALI.IntroductionA.With the exception of perfectly competitive price-taking firms, all firms with marketpower face downward sloping demand curves. These firms must lower prices to sellmore units of the product.B.For firms that have varying degrees of market power, product price is a strategicvariable that managers must understand and manipulate.C.Demand(Price)Elasticity:Quantitative measure that shows how responsiveconsumers are to changes in price.D.The chapter also discusses the relationship between price elasticity and revenue, andits relevance to the decisions of managers.E.In addition to price elasticity of demand, income and cross-priceelasticitiesofdemand areintroduced.II.Case for Analysis:Demand Elasticity and Procter & Gamble’s Pricing Strategies
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 23 preview imageChapter 3: DemandElasticities22A.The Case for Analysis provides a discussion of how a company’s pricing strategydepends on consumers’ price sensitivity.The case focuses on P&G and theirresponses to weaknesses in consumer spending between 20092011.1.Post 2007-09 recession consumers remained careful with their spendingwhich lead to substitution to private-label and retailer brands. This causedthe demand for P&G products to decrease.2.In 2009, P&G attempted to address the weakening demand by increasingadvertising and introducing new products. In light of rising costs ofproduction, the company decided to raise prices. This increase in pricesleads to lower sales but higher overall total revenues (inelastic or inflexibleresponse of the consumer).3.In spring of 2010, the company reversed its strategy and loweredits prices.This was in part done to recapture the lost during the recession marketshare to private-label brands. Although this stimulated the volume of sales,italsolead to reduced profits.4.In the beginning of 2011, P&G once again adjusted its pricing strategy andincreased the prices on products for babies. This strategy was supported bythe idea that consumers would be less willing to switch from brand nameswhen it comes to products for their babies (a market with less flexibleconsumers and therefore a smaller response to price increases). In addition,the company observed that the demand for products designed for higherincome consumers remained strong, allowing the company to prices onthose products.5.During that time the company also explored the possibility of expandinginto other markets (Brazil) where the consumer demand was expected to behigher due to consumer tastes.B.The case shows several important for discussion points:1.Pricing strategy depends on consumer response. The consumer response toa price change effects the firm’s total revenues and profits2.A recession (which is characterized by declining incomes) negativelyimpacted the demand for P&G products and induced substitution towardsnon-brand names.3.High income consumers appeared to be less price sensitive, suggesting thatthe amount spent on a product in relation to income matters4.It takes time to adjust to changes in prices5.A price increase can increase or decrease total revenueIII.Demand Elasticity: Quantitative measurement showing the percentage change in thequantity demanded of a particular product relative to the percentage change in any oneof the variables included in the demand function for that product.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 24 preview imageChapter 3: DemandElasticities23A.Elasticity measures the responsiveness of consumers in terms of percentage changesin both variables.Teaching Tip:Students find that elasticity is a very difficult concept to grasp. Althoughsome students master the actual calculation of the elasticity coefficient, they have adifficult time understanding what the numbers mean.Make sure they understand how toanalyzethese numbers, in addition to the calculations.IV.Price Elasticity of Demand(eP): Percentage change in the quantity demanded of a givengood, X, relative to a percentage change in its price, all other factors constant.A.Equation 3.1:eP= %∆QX/ %∆PXwhere:eP= price elasticity of demand∆= the absolute change in the variable: (Q2-Q1) or (P2-P1)1.Price elasticity of demand is illustrated by the change in quantitydemanded from Q1to Q2as the price changes from P1to P2.2.This is shown as the movement along the demand curve from A to B inFigure 3.1.B.The price elasticity of demand affects managerial decisions on pricing strategiesthrough the total revenue.1.Total Revenue: The amount of money received by a producer for the saleof its product calculated as the price per unit times the quantity sold.C.Priceelasticitiesfor downward sloping demand curves are negative because of theinverse relationship between price and quantity demanded.However, to determinethe size of the price elasticity, absolute values are taken for the coefficients.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 25 preview imageChapter 3: DemandElasticities241.Unitary Elasticity: |eP|=1, when themagnitude of thepercentage change inquantity demanded is equal tothe magnitude ofthe percentage change inprice.2.Elastic Demand:|eP|>1, when themagnitude of thepercentage change inquantity demanded is greater thanthe magnitude ofthe percentage changein price.3.Inelastic Demand:|eP|<1, when themagnitude of thepercentage change inquantity demanded is less thanthe magnitude ofthe percentage change inprice.D.Price elasticity of demand and total revenue are related in the following ways.1.When demand is elastic, a higher price will decrease total revenue while alower price will increase total revenue. This is illustrated in Figure 3.2.2.When demand is inelastic, a higher price will increase total revue while alower price will decrease total revenue. This is illustrated in Figure 3.3.3.When demand is unit elastic, there is no change in the total revenue.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 26 preview imageChapter 3: DemandElasticities25E.Managerial rule of thumb: elasticity can be estimated as Px/(P1-P2). We can eitheruse the average price (midpoint formula) or the starting value for Px. The textbookuses the starting value of P1.1.The rule is derived from the elasticity equation 3.2 on page 49. Since weassume that the quantity demanded changes from Q1 to zero, the change inquantity demanded equals Q1, thereby simplifying the equation 3.2 to themanagerial rule stated above.V.Determinants of Price Elasticity of DemandA.Number of Substitute Goods1.Demand is more inelastic when there are fewer substitutes available, allelse constant.2.An example of inelastic demand is airline travel by business passengersdue to the lack of available substitute modes of transportation.B.Percent of Consumer’s Income Spent on the Product1.Demand is more inelastic when a smaller fraction of a consumer’sincomeis spent on the product, all else constant.2.An example of inelastic demand is the local newspaper since it makes up avery tiny fraction of a consumer’s income.C.Time Period1.Demand is more inelastic when the time period under consideration isshort, all else constant.2.It takes time for substitute products to be made available.VI.Numerical Example of Elasticity, Prices and RevenuesA.Calculating PriceElasticities1.Arc Price Elasticity of Demand: A measurement of the price elasticity ofdemand where the base quantity or price is calculated as the average valueof the starting and ending quantities or prices.(a)If Q1and Q2are very different from each other, a different value forthe percentage change in quantity demanded may result.(b)If P1and P2are very different from each other, a different value forthe percentage change in price may result.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 27 preview imageChapter 3: DemandElasticities26(c)To remedy these problems, the following equation is used.(d)Equation 3.3:eP=(Q2-Q1)/ [(Q1+Q2)/2](P2-P1)/ [(P1+P2)/2]2.Point Price Elasticity of Demand: A measurement of the price elasticity ofdemand calculated as a point on the demand curve using infinitesimalchanges in prices and quantities.(a)For a specific demand function,appropriate derivatives can becomputed.(b)Equation 3.4: eP=dQXPXdPxQXB.A numerical example of demand, total revenue, average revenue and marginalrevenue functions is shown in Table 3.2.The functions related to demand are thefollowing.1.Total Revenue Function: The functional relationship that shows the totalrevenue (pricetimes quantity) received by a producer as a function of thelevel of output.2.Average Revenue Function: The functional relationship that shows therevenue per unit of output received by the producer at different levels ofoutput.3.Marginal Revenue Function: The functional relationship that shows theadditional revenue a producer receives by selling an additional unit ofoutput at different levels of output.C.Table 3.3 presents a numerical example of total revenue and marginal revenuecomputation. Table 3.4 extends the computational analysis toArc and point priceelasticities.D.Price elasticity is not the same as the slope. Even though the demand curve is linearand has a single slope, the price elasticity coefficients vary.Teaching Tip:Make sure the students understand the distinction between the slope andprice elasticity of a linear demand curve.1.The price elasticity coefficient is larger(smaller)at higher(lower)pricesfor a linear demand function.2.In the elastic(inelastic)portion of the linear demand curve,a decrease(increase) in price results in an increase (decrease) in total revenue.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 28 preview imageChapter 3: DemandElasticities273.In the elastic (inelastic) portion of the linear demand curve, marginalrevenue is positive (negative) and decreasing in value.E.Demand Elasticity, Marginal Revenue, and Total Revenue1.Figure 3.4 illustrates the relationship between demand and marginalrevenue.Figure 3.4 and Table 3.5 connect elasticity to total revenue and marginal revenue.VII.Vertical and Horizontal Demand CurvesA.Two polar cases of demand curves, vertical and horizontal demand curves areimportant.B.Perfectly Inelastic Demand: Zero elasticity of demand, illustrated by a verticaldemand curve, where there is no change in quantity demanded for any change inprice.1.An example is the demand for insulin by a diabetic, who is completelyunresponsive to changes in price.C.Perfectly Elastic Demand:Infinite elasticity of demand, illustrated by a horizontaldemand curve, where there the quantity demanded would vary tremendously iftherewere any changes in price.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 29 preview imageChapter 3: DemandElasticities281.There is no exact application of a perfectly elastic demand in reality.Examplesthat illustrate this ideaare the demand for common fruits andvegetables.VIII.Income and Cross-PriceElasticityof DemandA.Income Elasticity of Demand: The percentage change in the quantity demanded of agiven good, X, relative to a percentage change in consumer income, all other factorsconstant.1.Normal Good:A product whose demand will increase with an increase inincome. This good has a positive income elasticity of demand.2.Inferior Good: A product whose demand will decrease with an increase inincome. This good has a negative income elasticity of demand.B.For goods with positive incomeelasticities,a distinction between necessities andluxuries is made.1.Necessity: A good withincomeelasticity between 0 and 1 where theexpenditure on the good increases less proportionately with changes inincome.2.Luxury: A good with an income elasticity great than 1 where theexpenditure on the good increases more proportionately with changes inincome.C.Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand: The percentage change in the quantity demandedof a given good, X, relative to the percentage change in the price of good Y, all otherfactors constant.1.Substitute Goods:Products that can be used in place of one another. Thesegoods have a positive cross-price elasticity of demand.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 30 preview imageChapter 3: DemandElasticities292.Complementary Goods:Products that are used together. These goods havea negative cross-price elasticity of demand.IX.Elasticity Estimates: Economics LiteratureA.Table 3.7 shows estimates of elasticity of demand coefficients derived in theeconomics literature.1.The demand for many agricultural products is price inelastic. They aregenerally necessities with incomeelasticityless than 1.2.The price elasticity coefficient for beer as a commodity is less than 1.However, the estimates for the individualpackagesare quite elastic due tothe substitutability of brands.3.The price elasticity of demand for cigarettes for adults is inelastic. Forteenagers and college students, it is more elastic because they spend alarger fraction of their income than adults.4.The demand for health care is price inelastic. It is also income inelastic,indicating that health care is a necessity for consumers.5.The demand for higher education tends to be price inelastic. However, thedemand for higher education from a particular university tends to be elasticas there are many substitutes to a given university.X.Elasticity Issues: Marketing LiteratureA.Marketing extends the economic analysis of price elasticity in detail.1.These studies examine the demand for specific brands of products and thedemand at the level of individual stores.2.Advertising Elasticity of Demand: The percentage change in quantitydemanded of a good relative to the percentage change in advertising dollarsspent on that good, all other factors constant.3.Marketing Study I: Tellis (1988)(a)This studyis from a meta-analysis of other econometric studies ofselective demand from 1961 to 1985.
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Class Notes for Economics for Managers, 3rd Edition - Page 31 preview imageChapter 3: DemandElasticities30(b)Tellis finda mean price elasticity of-1.76, using 367elasticitiesfrom220 brands.4.Marketing Study II: Sethuraman and Tellis (1991)(a)This studyis derived froma meta-analysis of 16 studies conductedfrom 1960 to 1988.(b)The authors find a mean price elasticity of-1.609 and a mean short-term advertising elasticity of +0.109, using 262elasticitiesfrom 130brands.5.Marketing Study III: Hoch et al. (1995)(a)This studyestimates store-level priceelasticitiesfrom Dominick’sFiner Foods.(b)The authors find thatelasticitiesdiffer based on opportunity cost tothe consumer (more educated individuals tend to be less pricesensitive given that they have higher incomes), family size (thisrelates to the share of household’s income allocated to food).XI.Appendix 3A: Economic Model of Consumer ChoiceA.Consumer tastes and preferences are measured with utility, how much satisfaction isderived fromtheconsumption of different amounts of twogoods, X and Y. Thefollowing are assumptions about consumer preferences.1.Preference orderings are complete.2.More of the goods are preferred to less of the goods.3.Consumers are selfish.4.The goods are continuously divisible so that consumers can alwayspurchase one more or one less unit of the goods.B.An indifference curve shows alternative combinations of the goods that provide thesame level of utility.
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