Solution Manual for Essentials of System Analysis and Design, 4th Edition
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 1 Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment Chapter Overview Chapter 1 is a foundation chapter, introducing students to basic, core systems analysis and design concepts. These basic concepts include a definition of information systems analysis and design, an overview of systems analysis and design core concepts, a discussion of a system and its parts, an introduction to the modern approach to systems analysis and design, an overview of the systems analyst’s role in systems development, and a review of the types of information systems and systems development. The chapter concludes with an introduction to the systems development life cycle, its four phases, and alternative approaches to development. Instructional Objectives Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning of the chapter. From an instructor’s point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to: 1. Define information systems analysis and design. 2. Define and discuss the modern approach to systems analysis and design. 3. Illustrate how systems development extends to different types of information systems and not just transaction processing systems. 4. Introduce the traditional information systems development life cycle, which serves as the basis for the organization of the material in this book. 5. Show students that the life cycle is a flexible basis for systems analysis and design and that it can support many different tools and techniques, such as prototyping and JAD. 6. Discuss the importance and role of CASE in systems development. 7. Discuss information systems development options, including IT services firms, packaged software producers, enterprise - wide solutions, open - source software, and in - house developers. 8. Discuss the different approaches to systems development, including prototyping, CASE tools, joint application development, rapid application development, participatory design, and Agile Methodologies.
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 2 Classroom Ideas 1. Emphasize the differences between methodologies, techniques, and tools. Such differences are not obvious to students; often they think of methodologies as just a set of techniques and that techniques and tools are synonymous. 2. Give concrete examples during class discussion of the following types of IS: transaction processing systems, management information systems, and decision support systems. Ask students to talk about the information systems with which they are familiar. 3. When discussing different types of information systems, discuss the differences between systems that support back room operations, such as basic accounting functions, and systems that directly affect the bottom line. If students are aware of such systems, they usually are not aware of how these systems provide competitive advantage. Discussing different types of systems provides a chance to talk about the differences between these two categories of systems. 4. When introducing the life cycle model in the text, you may want to introduce other life cycle models from other textbook authors or in other forms. This shows students that there is no one standard life cycle model and that the model they will rely on when they begin work as a systems analyst will likely differ from the life cycle model in the text. The point is to show them they can use the life cycle as an archetype to understand other models, and they should understand there is no one “correct” life cycle model. The life cycle represents activities that must be done, and the phases are a way to introduce, in an organized way, the methods, techniques, tools, and skills necessary for successful systems analysis and design. 5. Give a brief overview of the activities and outputs from each of the four life cycle phases, based on your own experience or from your reading of the rest of the book. Table 1 – 4 identifies the products of the four SDLC phases. 6. Although prototyping and joint application design are covered in more depth later in the book, you can provide a more in - depth introduction to these techniques than discussed in Chapter 1. Figure 1 – 13 is a good point of departure for a discussion of prototyping and what it adds to structured development techniques. 7. Participatory Design is briefly introduced in this chapter but can be discussed in more depth. A brief overview of the Participatory Design concept is available at http://www.cpsr.org/issues/pd/index_html. Several books are available on this topic, as well as numerous Web sites. You can also ask your students to find recent articles about this topic. 8. Spend a few minutes discussing the importance of analytical, technical, managerial, and interpersonal skills for a systems analyst. Ask students to identify which of the skills categories they think is the most important and why. 9. Figure 1 – 2 is an excellent tool for illustrating the basic system components.
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 3 10. Use Table 1 – 1 and an updated version of the same information from the most recent Software Magazine survey to begin a discussion of the many, varied sources of software in the marketplace. 11. Use Table 1 – 2 to summarize the alternative sources for software and how to choose among them for specific software needs. This table can serve as the basis for a discussion of the “make versus buy” decision and can be expanded to include the “not invented here” syndrome. 12. Compare and contrast Agile Methodologies with the traditional SDLC. Lecture Notes What Is Information Systems Analysis and Design? All organizations have information systems, and use them for operational, tactical, and strategic advantage. For information systems to remain effective, these systems must efficiently capture, store, process, and distribute information according to business objectives. To properly maintain these systems, systems analysts will perform information systems analysis and design . Information systems analysis and design is based on an understanding of the organization’s objectives, structure, and processes, as well as the analyst’s knowledge of how to exploit information technology for competitive advantage. Systems Analysis and Design: Core Concepts Improving organizational information systems is the major goal of systems analysis and design. Figure 1 – 1 illustrates the four systems development life cycle phases. Although a systems analyst’s primary role is application software development, an analysis of the other computer - based information systems components is warranted. As Figure 1 – 2 shows, these components include hardware, controls, specific job roles, users of the system, system software, and documentation and training manuals. As shown in Figure 1 – 3 , methodologies, techniques, and tools are central to the software engineering process. Systems This section introduces students to the definition of a system, its parts, and other important system concepts. The textbook defines a system as a group of interrelated procedures used for a business function, with an identifiable boundary, working together for some purpose. A system has nine characteristics. Figure 1 – 4 shows seven of the nine characteristics. The nine characteristics are: components , interrelated components , boundary , purpose , environment , interfaces , input, output, and constraints . Figure 1 – 5 describes a university as a system. A systems analyst should also be familiar with decomposition , modularity , coupling , and cohesion system concepts. Figure 1 – 6 illustrates decomposition.
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 4 A Modern Approach to Systems Analysis and Design Systems integration and enterprise - wide systems are two alternatives for company systems. The client/server model, illustrated in Figure 1 – 7, stresses the importance of systems integration, which is the focus of today’s systems development efforts. Organizations may also purchase an enterprise - wide system from companies like SAP or Oracle. The systems analyst is the person primarily responsible for performing systems analysis and design within an organization. A job advertisement for a systems analyst position is provided in Figure 1 – 8 . As this job advertisement indicates, a systems analyst’s skills set should include analytical, technical, managerial, and interpersonal skills. Types of Information Systems and Systems Development Figure 1 – 9 illustrates that an organization has three classes of information systems: transaction processing systems (TPS), management information systems (MIS), and decision support systems (DSS). Each of these systems has certain characteristics and suggested systems development methods. Table 1 – 1 summarizes the IS characteristics and suggested systems development methods. Developing Information Systems and the Systems Development Life Cycle Organizations use a systems development methodology to develop and support their information systems. A systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a common methodology for systems development, and each organization will use a slightly different version. The life cycle presented in the textbook has four phases: (1) systems planning and selection; (2) systems analysis; (3) systems design; and (4) systems implementation and operation. Figure 1 – 10 illustrates these phases. Figure 1 – 11 illustrates the circular nature of the systems development life cycle. Systems planning and selection has two primary activities: (1) identifying a potential project and (2) investigating the system and determining the proposed system’s scope. Systems analysis consists of three subphases: requirements determination, requirements structuring, and alternative generation and selection. Systems design , the third life cycle phase, has two primary activities: logical design and physical design. Figure 1 – 12 illustrates the differences between logical and physical design. The final phase, systems implementation and operation , involves implementing and operating the system. Table 1 – 2 summarizes the products of each SDLC phase. Approaches to Development This chapter discusses six approaches to systems development. These approaches are: prototyping, computer - aided software engineering (CASE) tools, joint application design (JAD), rapid application development (RAD), participatory design (PD), and the use of Agile Methodologies. Prototyping is the process of building a scaled - down version of the desired information system. Figure 1 – 13 illustrates the prototyping method. Computer - aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools provide automated
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 5 support for some portion of the systems development process. Computer - aided Software Engineering tools use a repository . Joint Application Design (JAD) brings users, managers, and analysts together for several days in a series of intensive meetings to specify or review system requirements. Rapid Application Development (RAD) radically decreases the time necessary to design and implement information systems. Figure 1 – 14 compares the RAD systems development life cycle with the standard systems development life cycle. Participatory Design (PD), developed in northern Europe, has as its central focus users and the improvement of their work lives. Agile Methodologies focus on adaptive methodologies, people instead of roles, and a self - adaptive process. Key Terms Checkpoint Solutions Answers for the Key Terms Checkpoint section are provided below. The number following each key term indicates its location in the key term list. 1. systems planning and selection (28) 16. Interface (12) 2. information systems analysis and design (11) 17. constraints (7) 3. participatory design (PD) (16) 18. systems implementation and operation (27) 4. application software (2) 19. systems development methodology (26) 5. systems analyst (23) 20. systems development life cycle (SDLC) (25) 6. Joint Application Design (JAD) (14) 21. decomposition (9) 7. prototyping (17) 22. modularity (15) 8. system (21) 23. coupling (8) 9. component (5) 24. cohesion (4) 10. interrelated components (13) 25. Computer - Aided Software Engineering (CASE) (6) 11. boundary (3) 26. repository (20) 12. purpose (18) 27. Rapid Application Development (RAD) (19) 13. systems design (24) 28. Agile Methodologies (1) 14. systems analysis (22) 15. environment (10) Review Questions Solutions 1. What is information systems analysis and design? Information systems analysis and design is the process of developing and maintaining an information system.
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 6 2. What is systems thinking? How is it useful for thinking about computer - based information systems? Systems thinking involves identifying something as a system, visualizing the system and translating it into abstract terms, and thinking about the characteristics of the specific situation. Systems thinking is useful for thinking about computer - based information systems because information systems can be seen as subsystems in larger organizational systems, taking input from, and returning output to, their organizational environments. 3. What is decomposition? Coupling? Cohesion? Decomposition is the process of breaking down a system into its component parts. Coupling is the extent to which subsystems are dependent on each other. Cohesion is the extent to which a system or a subsystem performs a single function. 4. In what way are organizations systems? Organizations are systems because they are made up of interrelated components working together for a purpose. They take input from and return output to their environments. Organizations can be redesigned through a systems analysis and design process by which system components are replaced while preserving interconnections between components. 5. List the different classes of information systems described in this chapter. How do they differ from one another? (1) Transaction processing systems, (2) Management information systems, and (3) Decision support systems (for individuals, groups, and executives). Transaction processing systems (TPS) automate data handling about business activities and transactions. TPS systems can generate reports based on data input from transactions and other activities. A management information system can take data from the TPS and convert them into a meaningful aggregated form. They typically use information from several TPSs. Decision support systems provide an interactive environment where decision makers can quickly manipulate data and models of business operations to attempt to make predictions. 6. List and explain the different phases in the systems development life cycle. A systems development life cycle is a set of phases that mark the development of an information system. The systems development life cycle in the textbook consists of four phases: (1) systems planning and selection; (2) systems analysis; (3) systems design; and (4) systems implementation and operation. During planning and selection, an organization’s total information systems needs are analyzed and prioritized, a potential information systems project is identified, and an argument for continuing or not c ontinuing with the project is made. During the analysis phase, the current system is studied, and new requirements are determined and structured according to their interrelationships. After requirements determination, alternative design strategies are generated. During design, the chosen alternative design strategy is converted into logical and physical design specifications. During implementation and operation, the
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 7 information system is coded, tested, and installed in the organization. Once the system is put into production, the system is systematically repaired and improved. 7. What is prototyping? Prototyping is an iterative process of systems development by which requirements are converted to a working system, which is continually revised through close work between an analyst and users. 8. What are CASE tools? What is a CASE repository and how is it used? CASE tools provide automated support for some portion of the systems development life cycle. CASE tools include diagramming tools, computer display and report generators, analysis tools, a central repository, documentation generators, and code generators. CASE tools are built around a repository that contains all of the metadata (such as data names, format, uses, and location) for data elements as well as the system specifications. CASE tools automate the repository for easier updating. CASE tools automate routine tasks to help programmers and analysts to do their jobs better. 9. What is JAD? What is Participatory Design? Joint Application Design (JAD) is a group process involving users and systems development staff in which all parties discuss the needs for an information system and reach a shared understanding. Participatory Design (PD) is a systems development approach that originated in northern Europe in which users and the improvement in their work lives is the central focus. 10. What is RAD? How does it compare to the typical SDLC? Rapid application development (RAD) is a systems development methodology created to decrease the time needed to design and implement an information system. One of the hallmarks of RAD is extensive user involvement through traditional JAD sessions as well as evaluation of prototypes. RAD also includes integrated CASE tools and code generators. 11. What are Agile Methodologies? Agile Methodologies promote a self - adaptive software development process. While other methodologies focus on roles that individuals play in a project team, Agile Methodologies focus more on the individual. As software is developed, the process used to develop it is refined and improved through a review process done by the development team. Agile Methodologies differ from traditional system development methodologies in that there is less focus on process and more focus on the people involved in the project. Problems and Exercises Solutions 1. Why is it important to use systems analysis and design methodologies when building a system? Why not just build the system in whatever way seems to be “quick and easy”? What value is provided by using an “engineering” approach?
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 8 Methodologies, techniques, and tools help ensure the quality and appropriateness of the system being built. Following a systems methodology, applying techniques, and using appropriate tools provides structure to the systems development process, since they have been tested and perfected by others. The quick and easy approach to building systems may be easier, cheaper, and quicker in the short run, but it almost always results in a poorly developed system, meaning that the system will be less than optimal and require extra work to maintain. In the long run, a poorly developed system requires more time and money to make right. Following an engineering - type approach ensures that systems analysis and design is rigorous, structured, and systematic. 2. Describe your university or college as a system. What is the input? The output? The boundary? The components? Their interrelationships? The constraints? The purpose? The interfaces? The environment? Draw a diagram of this system. Students will identify a variety of inputs and outputs for the selected university or college. Possible inputs include high school transcripts, applications, tuition payments, and state and federal regulations. Outputs include diplomas, transcripts, billing statements, and inventions. A university’s boundary is more difficult to define. Does the physical boundary of the campus serve as the logical boundary for the organization? What if the school delivers outreach education in the community, state, or region? What if the school delivers technology - based distance education across the globe? How would you classify a university - sponsored high - tech start - up business that is not located on campus? It should be easy for students to list the components of a university. They typically have “business” functions, such as procurement, facilities management, and accounting. In addition, they have academic colleges and departments, and they have academic functions such as registration and advising. Universities are usually organized along a functional hierarchy much like traditional business organizations, with vertical reporting relationships and interdisciplinary committees and task forces for horizontal coordination. Nearly all universities are faced with constraints on funding. Many universities are also constrained by their state - granted mission. For example, they may be defined by state law as being an exclusively teaching or research institution. Alternatively, state law may mandate from where and what types of students may be admitted. The mission of most universities includes providing education, conducting research, and/or serving their communities. Universities interact with other universities, community colleges, high schools, business organizations, professional organizations, alumni, and many other external entities. The interfaces with these external entities are sometimes formal and sometimes informal. Some examples of formal interfaces include research collaborations between professors and researchers in business or “shadowing” programs where business faculty or students go into the field and learn from a business executive.
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 9 3. A car is a system with several subsystems, including the braking subsystem, the electrical subsystem, the engine, the fuel subsystem, the climate - control subsystem, and the passenger subsystem. Draw a diagram of a car as a system and label all of its system characteristics. The purpose of this question is to encourage your students to begin viewing various entities as systems, and decompose these systems into their components. A simple diagram, showing examples of the car system’s characteristics, is provided below. The car’s purpose is to provide safe transportation to wherever the driver needs to go. A constraint is the number of passengers that can ride in the vehicle.
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 10 4. Your personal computer is a system. Draw and label a personal computer as a system as you did for a car in Problem and Exercise 3. Student answers for this question will vary. However, a suggested answer, showing examples of a personal computer system’s characteristics, is provided below. The purpose of the computer is to perform operations for the user. A constraint for the system is its processing speed. Braking Subsystem E lectrical Subsystem E ngine Fuel Subsystem Climate-Control Subsystem Passenger Subsystem E nvironment Boundary Interrelationship Input Interface Output Interface Input Interface
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 11 5. Choose a business transaction you undertake regularly, such as using an ATM machine, buying groceries at the supermarket, or buying a ticket for a university’s basketball game. For this transaction, define the data, draw the data - flow diagram, and describe processing logic. For an ATM transaction, the data include customer name, customer account number, customer personal identification number, customer account balance, transaction type, and transaction amount. At this point, the student should not be expected to know the structure or nomenclature of a data - flow diagram or of processing logic. For the ATM example, they should be able to explain that a customer’s name is read from the account identification number on his/her ATM card. Customers input their personal identification number by hand and, if this number is matched with their account identification number, they are granted access to begin an ATM transaction. They will either request to inquire into the status of their account, withdraw money, or deposit money. If, for example, they request to withdraw money, their request will be matched with their available funds and the allowable daily limit for that ATM machine. If acceptable, the cash will be dispensed, their account will be debited, and a receipt will be provided. Do not worry whether or not the student knows the technique or nomenclature at this point. It is more important that the student can analyze the transaction, break it down into its component parts and pieces of data, and understand the process. 6. How is the Joint Application Design (JAD) approach different from the Participatory Design (PD) approach developed in northern Europe? (You may have to do some digging at the library to answer this question adequately.) What are the benefits in using approaches like this in building information systems? What are the barriers? Both Joint Application Design and Participatory Design are development processes designed to help build better systems by engaging the direct participation of users. The primary difference between them lies in the locus of control for systems development. With the JAD approach, control of systems development typically still rests with the systems staff. Indeed, the outputs from JAD sessions are commonly summarized and handled by the systems staff after users have a chance to review the transcripts. With the PD approach, control of systems development is either shared by systems personnel and users or rests solely with the users and their managers. With the movement toward end - user development in the United States, we are moving more toward shared control of systems and systems development. The benefits to the JAD and PD approaches are that they are likely to result in better systems and higher user commitment to the systems than would be the case if these techniques were not used. Some of the barriers to these approaches are that they require extra systems analyst skills and knowledge; in the short run they add more time and expense to the systems development process, and they require more time and effort from already busy users and user managers. 7. How would you organize a project team of students to work with a small business client? How would you organize a project team if you were working for a professional consulting organization? How might these two methods of organization differ? Why?
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 12 The student project team should be of a size that is adequate for the task at hand. The team members should also possess the necessary set of skills and experience for the task at hand. It is important that there be diversity of skills and abilities across team members, but it is also helpful if the team members have some common interests and values on which to build collegiality and trust. It is not necessary that there be a clearly defined “leader” for the team (leadership can rotate by time or phase), but there should be clearly defined roles and responsibilities for each of the team members. There should also be a reward structure (for example, a grade) that promotes shared responsibility and accountability. Finally, because their project is for a small business client, the team members must act professionally and deliver a quality product on time. Surprisingly, these steps do not necessarily change much for organizing a project team within a professional consulting organization. One difference might be that, because you would be concerned more with the long - term professional growth of the team members, you might make team member selections and project assignments that take into account the long - term career development of each of the team members. 8. How might prototyping be used as part of the SDLC? Prototyping is useful for requirements determination, helping to clarify and communicate user requirements. Also, a prototype can serve as the basis for the final system. Imagine that an analyst is helping to develop a system that will enable a sales representative to access information about inventory levels in real time rather than having to phone someone in production who then physically checks inventory levels and calls the sales representative back. The analyst might begin by asking the sales representative what kinds of information about inventory he/she needs, including when and where he/she needs to access this information. The analyst might then use a graphical, object - oriented development tool, such as Microsoft’s VB.Net, to quickly build some sample interface displays that meet the sales representative’s needs. The analyst would then have the sales representative review these displays and give the analyst feedback. The analyst could then modify the displays and, again, solicit feedback from the sales representative. Given the ease - of - use of VB.Net, the analyst could even build the sample interface “on - the - fly” with the sales representative present and helping to build the displays. The sample interface could then be used to build the actual system, either in VB.Net or in some other development environment. 9. Describe the difference in the role of a systems analyst in the SDLC versus prototyping? The role of the systems analyst in the SDLC is essentially the same as that in prototyping. The primary difference is that in prototyping, the analyst is simultaneously performing tasks from the analysis, logical design, and physical design phases of the SDLC. In cases where all or part of the prototype will be used for the actual system, the analyst is also performing tasks from the implementation phase of the SDLC. In cases where the analyst builds the prototype with the direct, real - time assistance of the users, the analyst and users are collaboratively completing several steps of the SDLC in one step. 10. Compare Figures 1 – 10 and 1 – 11. What similarities and differences do you see?
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 13 Figure 1 – 11 illustrates an evolutionary model of the SDLC, and Figure 1 – 10 illustrates the circular nature of the systems development life cycle. While both figures convey the iterative nature of systems analysis and design, Figure 1 – 11 implies that we cycle through the systems development life cycle at varying levels of detail. Discussion Question Solutions 1. If someone at a party asked you what a systems analyst was and why anyone would want to be one, what would you say? Support your answer with evidence from this chapter. A good starting point for answering this question is to discuss the importance of an organization’s information systems and the systems analyst’s role in the systems development process. A systems analyst is a problem solver. The challenge of tackling a problem or opportunity, designing a solution, and implementing a viable, valuable, and improved information system has much appeal. Additionally, the results of the analyst’s work directly impact how the organization operates and whether or not the organization can achieve and maintain a competitive advantage. In addition, the analyst is paid quite well. 2. Explain how a computer - based information system designed to process payroll is a specific example of a system. Be sure to account for all nine components of any system in your explanation. A payroll system can be thought of as a system because it is composed of interrelated subsystems that work together to accomplish a purpose. A payroll system has many components, including components that generate paychecks, make direct deposits, generate various internal reports, process time cards, and process various forms and tax returns. Many of these subsystems or components are related. For instance, the reporting component interacts with the tax, paycheck, and direct deposit components. A direct deposit made to an employee’s bank account is an example of an interface. The payroll system’s boundary encompasses all of the payroll system’s activities. Employees, banks, and the local, state, and federal governments are part of the payroll system’s environment. Hours worked, number of dependents, and number of sick days are examples of input to the payroll system. The various reports, paychecks, and tax forms are types of output. Federal and state tax regulations are examples of system constraints.
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 14 3. How does the Internet, and more specifically the World Wide Web, fit into the picture of systems analysis and systems development drawn in this chapter? The Internet has opened up a new frontier for organizations, enabling them to compete on a global basis. This new frontier of electronic commerce is having a tremendous impact on the way that organizations are conducting business. Companies are using the World Wide Web to conduct business with their customers and suppliers, as well as facilitate internal operations. Companies need to reengineer their information systems to take advantage of the World Wide Web and all that it offers. Systems analysis and design is at the heart of this required change. 4. What do you think systems analysis and design will look like in the next decade? As you saw earlier in the chapter, changes in systems development have been pretty dramatic in the past. A computer programmer suddenly transported from the 1950s to the 2000s would have trouble recognizing the computing environment that had evolved just 50 years later. What dramatic changes might occur in the next 10 years? As the textbook suggests, much of today’s systems development work focuses on systems integration, which is likely to continue in the coming years. Companies are recognizing the tremendous benefits of electronic commerce and the World Wide Web, so we can expect a continued movement in that area. Over the past 50 years, we have seen much improvement in the methodologies, techniques, and tools that are used for systems development work. This trend should continue. You should encourage students to find articles about the future of systems analysis and design. Many articles are available on the Web. These articles will serve as a launching pad for class discussion. Case Problem Solutions 1. Pine Valley Furniture Case Exercises a. How did Pine Valley Furniture go about developing its information systems? Why do you think the company chose this option? What other options were available? As mentioned in the scenario, Pine Valley Furniture developed its applications in - house. Many reasons are plausible for why the company chose this option. The company may have had unique processing needs that required the system to be built in - house, as opposed to purchasing a prepackaged system. The company may also have viewed its information systems as helping it achieve a competitive advantage. Pine Valley Furniture had several options, including purchasing a system off - the - shelf, implementing an enterprise - wide system, or hiring an information technology services firm to develop its information systems.
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 15 b. One option available to Pine Valley Furniture was an enterprise - wide system. What features does an enterprise - wide system, such as SAP, provide? What is the primary advantage of an enterprise - wide system? To answer this question, encourage your students to visit a Web site devoted to enterprise - wide systems. Information about SAP can be found at its Web site: http://www.sap.com . You may wish to have your students compare enterprise - wide systems, such as SAP and PeopleSoft. Information about PeopleSoft can be obtained at http://www.oracle.com/applications/peoplesoft - enterprise.html. Enterprise - wide systems enable companies of all sizes to better manage their financial, human resources, sales, production, and distribution processes. The primary advantage of an enterprise - wide system is its ability to integrate information across the organization. c. Pine Valley Furniture will be hiring two systems analysts next month. Your task is to develop a job advertisement for these positions. Locate several Web sites and/or newspapers that have job advertisements for systems analysts. What skills are required? Encourage your students to classify the required skills into four categories: analytical, technical, management, and interpersonal. A good place to start looking on the Web is at http://www.monster.com . Students should be able to find numerous systems analyst job advertisements at this Web site. d. What types of information systems are currently utilized at Pine Valley Furniture? Provide an example of each. Pine Valley Furniture is currently using transaction processing systems, management information systems, and decision support systems. Although not specified in the case scenario, students should be able to quickly identify order processing, management reporting, and forecasting as examples of the different types of information systems. 2. Hoosier Burger Case Exercises a. Apply the SDLC approach to Hoosier Burger. The systems development life cycle can be used to analyze, develop, and support Hoosier Burger’s information systems. During systems planning and selection, Bob, Thelma, and the analyst, recognize the need for improvement in the existing Hoosier Burger systems. This need will translate itself into several projects, such as new order - taking, inventory control, and management reporting systems. Also, needs are prioritized, a scope is identified, and feasibility is assessed. During systems analysis, the analyst examines Hoosier Burger to determine system requirements, structure these requirements, and generate alternative design strategies. During systems design, both logical and physical designs are prepared. During logical design, the analyst concentrates on the business aspects of Hoosier Burger. During physical design, Hoosier Burger’s logical design is translated into physical design specifications. During systems implementation and operation, the design specifications for the new Hoosier
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 16 Burger system become a working system, and modifications to the new information system are made when warranted. b. Using the Hoosier Burger scenario, identify an example of each system characteristic. The ordering system is an example of a component; the order and inventory systems are interrelated components. The boundary encompasses the ordering system, inventory system, and management reporting system. Hoosier Burger’s purpose is to make a profit for its owners and to provide quality products and services to its customers. Customers, suppliers, funding agencies, and regulatory agencies exist in Hoosier Burger’s environment. An interface exists between the customer and the counter. An order serves as input; a sales receipt serves as output. Constraints would include health regulations. c. Decompose Hoosier Burger into its major subsystems. Hoosier Burger has four major subsystems. These systems are order - taking, food preparation, inventory, and management reporting. Students may classify these subsystems differently; however, the goal is for students to decompose the Hoosier Burger system into its primary subsystems. d. Briefly summarize the approaches to systems development discussed in this chapter. Which approach do you feel should be used by Hoosier Burger? The textbook discusses several approaches, including systems development life cycle (SDLC), prototyping, computer - aided software engineering (CASE), joint application design (JAD), rapid application development (RAD), participatory design (PD), and Agile Methodologies. The SDLC is a series of steps used to mark the phases of development for an information system. Prototyping involves iteratively designing and building a scaled - down working model of a desired system. CASE tools provide automated support for the systems development process. Joint Application Design is a structured process that brings together end users, managers, and analysts in an effort to identify system requirements and review system designs. Rapid Application Development quickly builds systems through user involvement, JAD sessions, prototyping, integrated CASE tools, and code generators. Participatory design is a systems development approach that originated in Northern Europe in which users and the improvement in their work - lives is the central focus. Agile Methodologies focus on adaptive methodologies, people, and a self - adaptive process. Systems development at Hoosier Burger will probably use the traditional SDLC. However, prototyping can be used to build working models of the system. 3. Natural Best Health Food Stores Case Exercises a. Identify the different types of information systems used at Natural Best Health Food Stores. Provide an example of each. Is an expert system currently used? If not, how could Natural Best benefit from the use of such a system? From the description provided above, students should recognize the existence of
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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment 17 a transaction processing system, a management information system, and a decision support system. The transaction processing system is responsible for taking customer orders, scheduling deliveries, and updating inventory. The management information system is responsible for generating several management reports, including sales summary, delivery, and low - in - stock reports for each store location. Mr. Davis uses an Excel worksheet for decision support. The case scenario does not specifically mention an expert system. However, students should identify several potential uses of an expert system, including using the expert system to make product recommendations for customers. b. Figure 1 – 4 identifies seven characteristics of a system. Using the Natural Best Health Food Stores scenario, provide an example of each system characteristic. Inventory management and sales are two system components. Inventory management and sales are interrelated, because a product cannot be sold unless it is in stock or placed on back order. On a physical level, the boundary is defined by each store building. On a systems level, the boundary can be defined by the NBDS system activities, such as transaction processing, management reporting, and facilitating decision making. The purpose of Natural Best Health Food Stores is to provide healthy, quality products to its customers at an affordable price. The environment includes customers, suppliers, banks, and regulatory agencies. Interfaces include order taking, product deliveries, management reports, and low - in - stock notifications. Inputs include the order information, packing slips, and customer profiles. Outputs include sales receipts, delivery slips, and management reports. Constraints include the number of deliveries that can be made on a given day, lack of data exchange between stores, and the inability to deliver prepackaged meals at the present time. c. What type of computing environment does Natural Health Food Best Stores have? Natural Best Health Food Stores currently has a client/server environment. The clients are responsible for capturing the sales data. Data are then transmitted to a central server, which is responsible for processing this data and updating the central database.
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Chapter 2 The S ources of Software 1 Chapter 2 The Sources of Software Chapter Overview Systems Analysis and Development involves developing software, but also involves purchasing or in other ways obtaining various types of software to accomplish various SDLC activities. Chapter 2 discusses where software can be obtained, advantages and disadvantages of various sources, and how the systems analyst decides on a vendor and manages software procurement decisions. Instructional Objectives Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning of the chapter. From an instructor’s point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to: 1. Identify and discuss information systems development options, including IT services firms, packaged software producers, enterprise - wide solutions, application service providers, open - source software, and in - house developers. 2. Define and understand outsourcing and its implications. 3. Discuss choosing off - the - shelf software. 4. Make comparisons between off - the - shelf solutions and in - house solutions and validate purchased software. 5. Understand how and why reusing software can be a useful option. Classroom Ideas 1. This is a relatively short chapter. It may be easier to use the end of chapter elements for lecture s . The review questions and problems and exercises provide targeted topics for discussion in terms of discussing the many sources of software. 2. Emphasize how many sources of software are available. Students should understand that being a systems analyst does not necessarily mean building code from scratch. Illustrate that, while a systems analyst might need a unique solution for their particular organization, there are many source s where the analyst can acquire already existing pieces that can be brought together to build their unique solution. 3. It can be useful to discuss the history of systems acquisition and show how changes in technology and availability have influenced where software can be acquired now.
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Chapter 2 The S ources of Software 2 4. If possible, try to obtain off - the - shelf validation documents (RFP or RFQ) from an actual organization to illustrate what these documents contain. 5. In lecturing about this chapter, you might want to use the tables and figures in the chapter to point out to students the major issues at stake in sourcing software. Lecture Notes Introduction Software is available from many sources. Some firms still do in - house programming, but many others acquire software from a variety of sources. This chapter discusses the various sources of software, from outsourcing to open source and off - the - shelf options. This chapter illustrates how systems analysts can make decisions about choosing from the many sources, and also discusses reusing software from previous sources. Systems Acquisition Considering how important information systems are to organizations, when did they begin to be used, and where did they come from? GE produced an in - house payroll option in 1954. Since then, in - house development has become a smaller component of many organizations’ systems development budgets as other sources of software have become available and more strategically advantageous than developing software in - house. Outsourcing Outsourcing is a practice where another organization develops or runs a computer application for your organization. Outsourcing can be very cost effective, and many organizations choose to outsource much, if not all of their IT functions. This has resulted in a very large market for outsourcing — $930 billion in 2006. Considering the availability and cost - effectiveness of outsourcing, analysts should be aware of the option and carefully consider it as a potential alternative. Sources of Software Methods of acquiring software can be grouped into 6 major categories — (1) information technology services firms , (2) packaged software providers , (3) vendors of enterprise solution software , (4) application service providers and managed service providers , (5) open - source software , and (6) in - house development . Each of these sources are presented in Figure 2 – 1 and Table 2 – 2 provides a comparison of the 6 sources of software . Choosing Off - The - Shelf Software If an analyst choose s to purchase software, s/he should understand what criteria they should evaluate before making a decision, and how to compare the options available to them. The most common criteria for evaluating off - the - shelf software relative to in - house
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Chapter 2 The S ources of Software 3 development are shown in Figure 2 – 2. Each of the criteria may be more important than the others depending on various aspects of the project. Another important consideration when evaluating off - the - shelf options is validating the software information. This can be done by asking the vendor, but can also be carried out by issuing a Request for Proposal (RFP) , where vendors can propose hardware and software that will meet the requirements of your new system. Other users of the software are also good sources for feedback and validation. Reuse In addition to the sources of software already identified, some organizations may be able to Reuse software, or various components from already developed software. Reuse may apply to many pieces of previously developed software, but most often applies to object - oriented and component - based technologies. Reuse requires the organization to be able to leverage the cost of components across many users and projects. Figure 2 – 3 shows a graph illustrating this concept. If an organization makes the decision to reuse, there are four approaches to reuse, which are presented in Table 2 – 3. Key Terms Checkpoint Solutions Answers for the Key Terms Checkpoint section are provided below. The number following each key term indicates its location in the key term list. 1. Managed service provider (MSP) (3) 4. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems (2) 2. Application service provider (1) 5. Request for proposal (RFP) (5) 3. outsourcing (4) 6. Reuse (6) Review Questions Solutions 1. Describe and compare the six sources of software. The six sources of software identified in the textbook are: (1) information technology services firms, (2) packaged software providers, (3) vendors of enterprise solution software, (4) application service providers and managed service providers, (5) open - source software, and (6) in - house development. IT services firms help companies develop custom information systems for internal use ; they develop, host, and run applications for customers ; or they provide other services. An IT services firm may be chosen if the system can’t be developed internally or requires customer support. Packaged software providers are companies th at produce software exclusively, like Microsoft or Intuit, and are preferable if the task needing the system is generic. Vendors of enterprise solution software create a system that is composed of a series of integrated modules. Each module supports a business function, such as accounting, or human resources. ERP systems may be appropriate if a complete system is
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Chapter 2 The S ources of Software 4 required that can cross functional boundaries. Application service providers host and run software applications at remote sites. A more intense option for larger, more customizable solutions are Managed service providers who can provide more services than application service providers. ASPs and MSPs may be appropriate when instant access to an application is desired, and in the case of ASPs, when the task is generic. Open - source software is a type of software that is developed by a community of interested people and it is freely available. Open - source software is preferable when the task is generic and cost is an issue. Finally, in - house development is still an option. In - house development refers to the organization developing software with its own IT assets, rather than purchasing software elsewhere. In - house development may be appropriate when a system must be built from scratch and as long as the personnel and resources are available to the organization. 2. What are the differences between ASPs and MSPs? ASPs host and run computer applications for other companies and usually purchase or license applications from other software vendors. MSPs provide similar services, but can also provide more customization and may also include business processes, engineering, security, and maintenance. MSPs can also provide network - based series, customized applications, and even equipment and may cost more than ASPs. 3. How can you decide among various off - the - shelf software options? What criteria do you use? To decide what off - the - shelf software to buy, compare products and vendors. Use the following criteria (among others that may be more situation - specific): cost, functionality, vendor support, viability of vendor, flexibility, documentation, response time, and ease of installation. 4. What is an RFP and how do analysts use one to gather information on hardware and system software? An RFP is a formal document that provides detailed specifications about a target information system and asks vendors for information on how they would develop the system. Analysts use RFPs as a way to get vendors to perform the necessary research into specific design strategies and the hardware and system software vendors believe are necessary for developing the new system. 5. What methods can a systems analyst employ to verify vendor claims about a software package? To verify vendor claims about a software package, an analyst can ask for a software demonstration, use the software (and its documentation and training materials), personally talk with other users of the software, ask specific questions via a questionnaire, and consult independent software testing and abstracting services. 6. What are ERP systems? What are the benefits and disadvantages of such systems as a design strategy?
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Chapter 2 The S ources of Software 5 ERP is a system that is composed of a series of integrated modules. Each module supports a business function, such as accounting, or human resources. An advantage of ERP systems is that the modules are integrated across business functional areas, so that, for instance, all aspects of a single transaction can occur seamlessly within one information system, where it would have had to have been processed multiple times across several systems in a more traditional environment focused on functional areas. Other benefits include having a single repository of data for all aspects of a business process and the flexibility of the modules; other modules can be added as needed and are immediately integrated into the existing system. Disadvantages include complexity, lack of knowledge among organization’s personnel and reliance on consultants , and expense. In some cases, an organization may be required to change how it does business to more efficiently utilize ERP systems. 7. Explain reuse and its advantages and disadvantages. Reuse refers to using previously written software resources, especially objects and components, in new applications. It can be more efficient to reuse objects or components , and research has shown that it can increase productivity, reduce defects, and reduce the amount of rework needed. Disadvantages include organizational lack of commitment, lack of proper training and rewards needed to promote reuse, and it is difficult to measure the economic gains from reuse. 8. Compare and contrast the four approaches to reuse. “Ad Hoc” reuse refers to individuals finding ways to reuse objects and components on their own. Facilitated reuse refers to reuse that is encouraged by the organization, but with limited resources, infrastructure, and policies that would make reuse easier. Managed reuse refers to reuse that occurs because the organization enforces reuse through resources, infrastructure, policies, and people. Designed reuse refers to an organization carefully designing assets for reuse. Problems and Exercises Solutions 1. Research how to prepare a request for proposal. The request for proposal (RFP) is used when the organization wants to solicit proposals from several competing vendors. RFPs usually first give some background information on the company and the business units involved in the request, an explanation of the information system needs, a description of what is wanted from the vendors (i.e., what information they must provide or other actions they must take), and an explanation of any rules or procedures for the RFP and system development process. The bulk of the document then describes the mandatory, essential, and desirable requirements in the areas of need (e.g., functionality, hardware, software, and service).
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Chapter 2 The S ources of Software 6 2. Review the criteria for selecting off - the - shelf software presented in this chapter. Use your experience and imagination and describe other criteria that are or might be used to select off - the - shelf software in the real world. For each new criterion, explain how its use might be functional (i.e., it is useful to use this criterion), dysfunctional, or both. In addition to cost, functionality, vendor support, viability of vendor, flexibility, documentation, response time, and ease of installation, there are a number of other real world criteria that might be included. People often choose application packages, such as word processors and spreadsheets, based solely on their familiarity with the packages and/or their bias toward one hardware platform or operating system over another. To a certain extent this can be functional. However, this could also be dysfunctional. For example, it would be useful to consider the current staff’s familiarity with the new application software and the resulting need for retraining. However, it would be dysfunctional if a company did not ever choose new software because of the employees’ lack of familiarity with it. Eventually, software will evolve and the market will change, and the employees (and the company) will be left behind using antiquated technology. Some other criteria include compatibility with currently used application software (so, for example, data can be shared), compatibility with existing hardware and system software, ability to support a range from novice to experienced (or power) users, and appeal of the user interface (ease of use). 3. In the section on choosing off - the - shelf software, eight criteria are proposed for evaluating alternative packages. Suppose the choice was between alternative custom software developers rather than prewritten packages. What criteria would be appropriate to select and compare among competing bidders for custom development of an application? Define each of these criteria. The list for evaluating alternative custom software developers would be very similar to that for selecting off - the - shelf application software or for computer hardware and system software. In addition to cost, functionality, vendor support, viability of vendor, flexibility, documentation, response time, and ease of installation, we might include the current staff’s familiarity with the software, need for retraining, compatibility and connectivity with current systems, and the track record of the vendor in successfully implementing similar software in other organizations. Such vendors should have an established track record of developing similar software in other organizations. Their references should be checked thoroughly, including visits to these other sites. If the developer’s role will end after the application is accepted, then the reputation of the vendor for handling this transition from external development to internal maintenance is important. From a legal point of view, you may want to select a custom developer based on the willingness to sign a non - disclosure agreement, so that they are not allowed to develop a similar system for one of your competitors, at least for some amount of time. 4. How might the project team recommending an ERP strategy justify its recommendation as compared with other types of design strategies?
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Chapter 2 The S ources of Software 7 The project team would need to justify an ERP strategy by highlighting the strategic advantage to reengineering business process es to integrate with ERP modules. Doing so will provide a single repository for data, which can streamline all IT within the organization and ensure that data is consistent and accurate. Furthermore, if expansion is required in the future, additional modules are able to be integrated immediately. Finally, considering the regulatory climate, the ERP vendor (and consultants) will likely be better at ensuring the organization’s compliance with regulations , such as Sarbanes - Oxley, HIPAA, etc.
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Chapter 3 Managing the Information Systems Project 1 Chapter 3 Managing the Information Systems Project Chapter Overview The purpose of this chapter is to introduce students to the process of managing an information systems project. Specifically, this chapter focuses on the systems analyst’s role in managing information systems projects through the four phases in the life of all projects: initiation, planning, execution, and close down. You (and your students) should think of this chapter as a valuable reference throughout the systems development course and use the material in this chapter to assist in guiding and evaluating ongoing project activities. You may want to emphasize that the skills and knowledge gained from this chapter are a critical foundation to the effective management of, not only information systems projects, but also, all types of projects and activities. Chapter 3 introduces students to Pine Valley Furniture and Broadway Entertainment Company, Inc., the textbook’s two running cases. These two fictional companies are used in the chapters to illustrate key systems analysis and design concepts. When either of these companies is referenced in the textbook, an icon appears next to the material, making it easier for the reader to locate the references to the particular company. Pine Valley Furniture is a fictitious manufacturing company that manufactures high - quality wood furniture. Pine Valley Furniture provides a concrete example of a systems development project, reinforcing the analysis and design concepts presented throughout the textbook. Broadway Entertainment Company, Inc. is a fictitious international company involved in the video, music, and game rental and sales business. The Broadway Entertainment Company, Inc. case demonstrates the concepts presented in the chapters and provides students the opportunity to apply their newly acquired knowledge to a realistic case. Instructional Objectives Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning of the chapter. From an instructor’s point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to: 1. Explain the process of managing an information systems project. 2. Describe the skills required to be an effective project manager. 3. List and describe the skills and activities of a project manager during project initiation, project planning, project execution, and project close down. 4. Explain what is meant by critical path scheduling and describe the process of creating Gantt charts and Network diagrams. 5. Explain how commercial project management software packages can be used to assist in representing and managing project schedules.
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Chapter 3 Managing the Information Systems Project 2 Classroom Ideas 1. This chapter introduces many concepts and terms that are central to the management of information systems projects. It is important that your students become familiar with the key terms listed at the end of the chapter. To reinforce students’ understanding of these key terms, you can use the matching questions as an in - class assignment, quiz, or out - of - class assignment. 2. You may choose not to lecture from this chapter. Your students can read the chapter much as they might read a supplemental background reading (this is especially true if your students have already been exposed to project management concepts in another course). When reading the chapter this way, you may want to ask each student to apply the concepts of this chapter to a non - information systems activity, such as going on a date, vacation, etc. For this activity, ask students to describe initiation, planning, execution, and close - down activities. Ask them to create a work breakdown structure that includes precedence relationships and time durations for each activity. Additionally, ask them to construct Gantt charts and Network diagrams for these activities. You can have students do this as either an outside class activity or have them do this during your class time. Within class, you can call on students to describe their project and phases. Alternatively, you could make this a written assignment to be graded or reviewed. 3. If you lecture from this chapter, you might want to use the tables and figures in the chapter to point out to the students the major project management activities. 4. An alternative to lecturing on the main part of this chapter is to lecture from the Review Questions, Problems and Exercises, and Discussion Questions at the end of the chapter. Selected questions can be posed to students to help focus a discussion on project management concepts and techniques. 5. You should make sure that the students have the ability to construct Gantt charts and Network diagrams. Working through the problems presented in the text or in Problems and Exercises 7, 8, 12, and 13 in class will be helpful to many students. 6. Another effective, in - class exercise for teaching this chapter is to ask students who have been on systems development teams to compare their experiences to the concepts presented in Chapter 3. This discussion can be a good way to elaborate on alternative ways for managing systems development projects, especially if systems were constructed using different methodologies. Use this discussion to explore if these student projects followed the discrete phases outlined in the chapter. Ask them to describe the activities of the project manager. What was the same? What was different? 7. If you have access to project management software, it is often engaging for students to see a demonstration of how a systems development project can be represented. Such a demonstration will not only teach students project management techniques, but it also gives them greater confidence to try project management software for themselves.
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Chapter 3 Managing the Information Systems Project 3 8. If you have access to a practicing systems development project manager, a useful activity is to invite them to your class to discuss how they manage projects. Make sure that you ask this person about how to manage all four phases of a project (even if this is not the terminology he uses). Also, what tools are used? How do project members communicate? 9. If you can obtain a copy of the project management guidelines for a local systems development firm or consulting organization, show students how extensive project management guidelines typically are. If you have students working in systems development organizations, you might ask several of them to bring to class their firm’s guidelines. If possible, reproduce the table of contents of these manuals for all students and have them compare the various guidelines to see what each organization emphasizes. Lecture Notes This chapter introduces students to the project manager’s role in the systems development process. The project manager is responsible for initiating, planning, executing, and closing down the project. Figure 3 – 1 illustrates these project management activities. Students are also introduced to techniques for reporting project plans, as well as project management software. Pine Valley Furniture Company Background Pine Valley Furniture manufactures a variety of high - quality wood furniture items. Since its beginnings in the early 1980s, the company’s information systems have changed from manual - based information systems to application - oriented systems to a recently implemented database approach. Figure 3 – 2 illustrates the application - oriented approach that Pine Valley Furniture used. Pine Valley Furniture’s new centralized database was developed in - house. Managing the Information Systems Project A project is a planned undertaking of related activities to reach an objective that has a beginning and an end. A project manager assures that a systems development project meets customer expectations and is delivered within budget and time constraints. Additionally, he/she is responsible for initiating, planning, executing, and closing down a project. To successfully perform these tasks, a project manager must have a diverse skills set, including management, leadership, technical, conflict management, and customer relations skills. Systems development projects are often undertaken for two primary reasons: to take advantage of business opportunities and to solve business problems. The Pine Valley Furniture’s Purchasing Fulfillment System is presented as an example of how a project is undertaken to solve a problem. Juanita Lopez works in the order department, and Chris Martin is a systems analyst. After contacting Chris about problems with the ordering process, Chris and Juanita produced a Systems Service Request. Figure 3 – 3
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Chapter 3 Managing the Information Systems Project 4 shows this deliverable . Once Pine Valley Furniture’s Systems Priority Board approved the Systems Service Request, a feasibility study was conducted. Figure 3 – 4 outlines the steps followed during the project initiation stage of the Purchasing Fulfillment System project. Once a project has been identified, the size, scope, resource requirements, and probability for successful completion are determined. To manage a project and bring it to a successful conclusion, the project manager juggles many activities; Figure 3 – 5 illustrates this juggling process. Table 3 – 1 lists the common activities and skills required of a project manager. As mentioned previously, the project manager is responsible for project management , which consists of four phases: (1) initiating the project; (2) planning the project; (3) executing the project; and (4) closing down the project. Project initiation is the first phase of the project management process in which activities are performed to assess the size, scope, and complexity of the project and to establish procedures to support later project activities. Figure 3 – 6 lists the following project initiation activities: (1) establishing the project initiation team; (2) establishing a relationship with the customer; (3) establishing the project initiation plan; (4) establishing management procedures; (5) establishing the project management environment and project workbook; and (6) developing the project charter. Establishing the project team organizes an initial core of project team members to carry out the project initiation activities. The second activity, establishing a relationship with the customer, encourages a strong working relationship between the analyst and the users. Often management will assign a specific IS individual to work as a liaison between the IS group and the business unit, thus fostering working relationships between the IS group and various business units. Establishing the project initiation plan identifies those activities required to organize the initiation team while it works to define the project’s scope. Activities include defining an individual’s role, establishing communication plans, identifying required deliverables and project steps, and establishing deadlines. When establishing management procedures, the project manager is concerned with how the team will communicate, establishing reporting procedures, job assignments and roles, project change procedures, and how to handle project funding and billing. Establishing the project management environment and project workbook involves collecting and organizing the tools that will be used while managing the project and starting a project workbook . The project workbook can exist in manual and/or electronic form. The project workbook is often made available via the Web. Figure 3 – 7 illustrates Pine Valley Furniture’s project workbook. A project charter is a short, high - level document prepared for both internal and external stakeholders to formally announce the establishment of the project and to briefly describe the objectives, key assumptions, and stakeholders. Project planning is the second phase of the project management process, which focuses on defining clear activities and the work needed to complete each activity within a single project. As Figure 3 – 8 suggests, plans in the short term can be more detailed and specific, while longer - term plans will often not be as detailed. As illustrated in Figure 3 – 9 , the project planning phase involves ten activities: (1) describing project scope, alternatives, and feasibility; (2) dividing the project into manageable tasks; (3) estimating resources and creating a resource plan; (4) developing a preliminary schedule; (5) developing a communication plan; (6) determining project standards and
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Chapter 3 Managing the Information Systems Project 5 procedures; (7) identifying and assessing risk; (8) creating a preliminary budget; (9) developing a project scope statement; and (10) setting a Baseline Project Plan. During the first activity, the initiation team seeks to understand the content and complexity of the project. It is important that the team members define the scope, identify possible alternative solutions, and assess feasibility. When dividing the project into manageable tasks, the entire project is broken into smaller, more manageable tasks. These tasks are then ordered. A work breakdown structure is a product of this activity. Figure 3 – 10 uses a Gantt chart to illustrate how activities can be broken down into summary tasks and specific tasks. During the estimating resources and creating a resource plan activity, resource requirements for each project activity are estimated. This information is used to create a project resource plan. It is important to keep in mind that the individuals assigned to specific tasks influence the resource requirements. Figure 3 – 11 helps illustrate this point. When making task assignments, the project manager can use specialized, generalized, or middle - ground approaches. When developing a preliminary schedule, the time and resource availability information is used to assign time estimates to each activity appearing in the work breakdown structure. Gantt charts and Network diagrams can represent a project’s schedule. Figure 3 – 12 shows a Network diagram. The activity of developing a communication plan outlines the communication procedures among management, project team members, and customers. Table 3 – 2 identifies several project team communication methods. Determining project standards and procedures specifies how various deliverables are produced and tested by the project team. It is important for the project manager to identify and assess sources of project risk. The identification of a project’s risk and its scope are related and often concurrently discussed. A preliminary budget will also be created; the preliminary budget outlines expected revenues and expenses. Figure 3 – 13 shows a sample cost - benefit analysis for a systems development project. A Project Scope Statement is developed near the end of the project planning phase; the purpose of this document is to ensure that everyone has a clear understanding of the intended project size, duration, and outcomes. The final project planning activity involves setting a Baseline Project Plan; the Baseline Project Plan estimates the project’s task and resource requirements and guides project execution. Project execution is the third phase of the project management process and is when the plans created in prior phases are put into action. Figure 3 – 14 lists the five project execution activities: (1) executing the Baseline Project Plan; (2) monitoring project progress against the Baseline Project Plan; (3) managing changes to the Baseline Project Plan; (4) maintaining the project workbook; and (5) communicating the project status. Executing the Baseline Project Plan involves initiating the execution of project activities, acquiring and assigning resources, orienting and training new team members, keeping the project on schedule, and assuring the quality of project deliverables. Figure 3 – 15 shows how complete and incomplete activities can be represented on a Gantt chart. While monitoring the project progress against the Baseline Project Plan, the project manager may need to adjust resources, activities, and budgets. Gantt and Network diagrams are beneficial tools for this activity. Managing changes to the Baseline Project Plan involves managing formal change requests and changes occurring outside the project manager’s control. When events occur that impact the project, the project manager must devise a way to get back on track or revise the Baseline Project Plan. During project execution, it is important that the project workbook is maintained and that the project’s status is communicated to all interested parties.
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Chapter 3 Managing the Information Systems Project 6 Project closedown brings the project to an end. A project can have a natural or unnatural termination. When a project terminates, several activities are performed; including: (1) closing down the project; (2) conducting postproject reviews; and (3) closing the customer contract. Figure 3 – 16 summarizes the project closedown activities. When closing down the project, the project manager may assess each team member, provide career advice to team members, handle negative personnel issues, notify all interested parties that the project is completed, finalize documentation and financial records, and celebrate the accomplishments of the team. When conducting postproject reviews, the objective is to determine the strengths and weaknesses of project deliverables, the processes used to create them, and the project management process. Closing the customer contract ensures that all contractual terms have been met. A project manager has a variety of graphical and textual documents available for documenting the project plans. Network diagrams and Gantt charts are two such tools. Figure 3 – 17 illustrates a Gantt chart and a Network diagram. While Gantt charts show when a task should begin or end, Network diagrams show the sequencing of activities. Project management software enables the project manager to easily alter the project plan. Figure 3 – 18 illustrates this point. Network diagrams are a critical path scheduling technique used for controlling resources . Network diagrams are more often used than Gantt charts for information systems projects because Network diagrams can represent how completion times vary for various tasks. Figure 3 – 19 illustrates a Network diagram. PERT is a technique that uses optimistic, pessimistic, and realistic time to calculate the expected time for a particular task. A critical path is the shortest time in which a project can be completed. Slack time is the amount of time that an activity can be delayed without delaying the project. Pine Valley Furniture’s Sales Promotion Tracking System (SPTS) is an example of how to represent a project plan. Jim Woo, the project’s manager, followed four steps to represent the project plan. The steps are: (1) identify each activity to be completed in the project; (2) determine time estimates and calculate the expected completion time for each activity; (3) determine the sequence of the activities and precedence relationships among all activities by constructing a Gantt chart and network diagram; and (4) determine the critical path. Figures 3 – 20 through 3 – 25 reinforce these steps. Using Project Management Software A wide variety of project management tools are available. These tools allow the project manager to define and order tasks, assign resources to tasks, and modify tasks and resources. Project management tools run on a variety of platforms and range in price. Figures 3 – 26 through 3 – 29 can be used to discuss project management software. Key Terms Checkpoint Solutions Answers for the Key Terms Checkpoint section are provided below. The number following each key term indicates its location in the key term list.
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