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The Official LSAT PrepTest 90: (June 2020 LSAT) (2020)

The Official LSAT PrepTest 90: (June 2020 LSAT) (2020) is designed to make certification prep easy and effective.

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    LSAC.org THE OFFICIAL LSAT PREPTEST • PrepTest 90 • Form FL0A08 90 MAY 2020 A Publication of the Law School Admission Council, The Producers of the LSAT ® ®

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    2 © 2020 by Law School Admission Council, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work, including information, data, or other portions of the work published in electronic form, may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission of the publisher. For information, write: Communications, Law School Admission Council, 662 Penn Street, Box 40, Newtown, PA, 18940-0040. LSAT is a registered trademark of the Law School Admission Council, Inc. All actual LSAT questions printed within this work are used with the permission of Law School Admission Council, Inc., Box 2000, Newtown, PA 18940, the copyright owner. LSAC does not review or endorse specific test preparation materials or services, and inclusion of licensed LSAT questions within this work does not imply the review or endorsement of LSAC.

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    3 • Reading Comprehension..........................SECTION I • Logical Reasoning.....................................SECTION II • Analytical Reasoning.................................SECTION III • Logical Reasoning.....................................SECTION IV CONTENTS

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    SECTION I Time—35 minutes 27 Questions Directions: Each set of questions in this section is based on a single passage or a pair of passages. The questions are to be answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage or pair of passages. For some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, choose the response that most accurately and completely answers the question and mark that response on your answer sheet. (5) (10) (15) (20) (25) (30) (35) (40) (45) A major problem facing industrial societies is their exponentially increasing production of toxic waste. Environmental regulations and expenses for landfills and incinerators have increased significantly in recent years. In an effort to save time and money, many industries have turned to alternative methods of hazardous-waste disposal, including increased use of deep-well injection. In this method, wells are drilled into porous and permeable rock strata that are already saturated with salt water. Liquid wastes are then injected into the rock strata. Most of these wells are drilled to a depth of at least 300 meters—the minimum depth that generally puts the injected waste at a safe distance below any aquifer, in this case a rock stratum containing drinkable water. Such wells are rarely deeper than 1,800 meters, because below this depth it is more cost-effective to consider an alternative method of disposal. Deep-well injection, which has been used to some extent since the 1930s, has become a matter of controversy as growing numbers of communities come to rely on underground sources of drinking water. The controversy arises because there are three serious problems with this method of waste disposal. Under the best conditions, wastes are injected into rock strata saturated with salt water and separated by impermeable rock strata from aquifers containing drinkable water. However, injection wells may leak, allowing significant amounts of noxious chemicals to mix with supplies of drinking water. In other cases, mistakes by personnel working on the wells may lead to the pollution of aquifers. In one such case, workers installing a 500-meter-deep well left a gap along approximately 30 meters of its steel casing. This allowed waste to escape at depth of only 200 meters, threatening a regional aquifer supplying water to 100,000 people. Because such accidents take place deep within the earth, people may be exposed to dangerous levels of waste materials for long periods of time before the problem is even discovered. The third problem associated with deep-well injection arises from the fact that it is nearly impossible to predict how the injected wastes will be acted on by the geological features of the injection area. Unlike surface water, the water in underground rock strata does not flow entirely under the influence of gravity. Moving along subterranean pressure gradients, it can flow in any direction and, in some cases, can be transported thousands of meters per year through geologic faults, porous rock, or other geologic formations. (50) (55) The significant uncertainty about where injected wastes will flow, along with the possibilities of mechanical failure and human error, makes deep-well injection a risky means of managing hazardous wastes. Unfortunately, as societies produce more toxic waste, industry will rely increasingly upon this relatively cheap, efficient means of disposal. 1. Which one of the following most accurately states the main point of the passage? (A) Deep-well injection of hazardous wastes is unsafe when expensive precautionary measures are not taken. (B) Although deep-well injection of hazardous wastes can be unsafe, it is generally safe when proper procedures are followed and sites are carefully selected. (C) Because of the high costs and extensive regulations associated with other methods, deep- well injection has wholly supplanted alternative methods of hazardous-waste disposal. (D) The increasing use of deep-well injection as a method of hazardous-waste disposal is seriously problematic. (E) Careful design and location of deep-well-injection facilities is important because communities commonly rely on groundwater for drinking. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. 1 -4- 1 1

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    2. The passage most strongly suggests that which one of the following is true? (A) The use of landfills and incinerators for the disposal of hazardous wastes is no longer considered safe. (B) Injection of hazardous wastes at depths of more than 1,800 meters is less expensive but more dangerous than injection of such wastes at 300 meters. (C) Deep-well injection of hazardous wastes can contaminate aquifers of drinking water that are great distances from the deep-well-injection site. (D) Disposal of hazardous wastes in landfills involves various risks, but—unlike deep-well injection—it does not involve the risk of contaminating groundwater. (E) Drinking-water wells are usually deeper than the wells that are drilled for deep-well injection of hazardous wastes. 3. Which one of the following would, if true, most strengthen the author’s position regarding the risks of deep-well injection of hazardous wastes? (A) Few of the rock formations that industries consider suitable for deep-well injection of hazardous wastes are adjacent to or connected to sources of drinkable groundwater. (B) Few of the toxic substances that are commonly disposed of through deep-well injection have been thoroughly tested for their effects on nonhuman organisms. (C) Many of the sites at which hazardous-waste-injection wells are drilled are many miles from the industrial facilities that use them for waste disposal. (D) The movement of underground water is even more rapid and less predictable than most geologists believe. (E) Methods of predicting and monitoring the movement of underground water have significantly improved in the time since the author gathered data. 4. According to the passage, which one of the following is true of underground water? (A) It can be suitable as a source of public drinking water even when contaminated by low levels of deep-well- injected wastes. (B) It can seldom be found at depths of less than 200 meters in regions in which deep-well injection is practiced. (C) It can seldom be used as a source of water for industrial processes. (D) It can contain a high concentration of salt as a result of contamination by deep-well-injected wastes. (E) It can move from one underground formation to another due to factors other than gravity. 5. Based on the passage, which one of the following most accurately states the purpose of deep-well injection of hazardous waste? (A) It serves as a short-term storage method for wastes while their toxicity is neutralized. (B) It makes aboveground hazardous-waste disposal methods obsolete. (C) It contains hazardous wastes in saltwater-saturated underground areas. (D) It creates underground pools of waste that can easily be continuously and reliably monitored. (E) It recycles certain low-toxicity wastes. 6. According to the passage, deep-well injection of hazardous wastes has become (A) more controversial because of an increased dependence on underground sources of drinking water (B) more controversial because of an increase in toxin- related illnesses near deep-well-injection areas (C) more widely accepted because newly developed alternatives are more expensive than deep-well injection (D) more widely accepted because of increasing public awareness of environmental issues (E) more widely accepted because of relatively high toxicity of wastes that are disposed of by deep-well injection 7. Based on the passage, which one of the following most accurately describes the ideal characteristics of an underground area suitable for the deep-well injection of hazardous wastes? (A) At 300 meters or more below the surface, the area contains a layer of impermeable rock below which there are no permeable layers. (B) At 300 meters or more below the surface, the area contains a layer of permeable rock above which there is a layer of impermeable rock. (C) The area contains one or more layers of impermeable rock extending from near the surface to a depth of at least 300 meters. (D) At a depth of 300 meters or less, the area contains an aquifer into which water flows. (E) The area contains a layer of impermeable rock overlain by a layer of permeable rock at a depth of 1,800 meters or more. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. 1 1 -5- 1

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    (5) (10) (15) (20) (25) (30) (35) (40) (45) (50) (55) Native American stories often feature a character called the trickster, a comic figure who has both mortal weaknesses and supernatural powers. Recently, the term “trickster” has also appeared in criticism of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century European literature, particularly in reference to the picaresque novel and its central character, the picaro (Spanish for “rogue”): both the picaro and the trickster are heroes of episodic adventures, and both live on the peripheries of society and are morally flawed. Yet closer examination reveals that applying the term “trickster” to both characters obscures essential differences between them. The picaro—typically a male character—operates primarily as an agent of satire. Most commonly, the picaro’s adventures begin when he spontaneously yields to his own roguish, though innocent, impulses. The picaro indulges in vices and follies with relish and freedom, much to the outrage of other members of society, who often secretly indulge in similar pastimes out of a habitual compulsion. Thus the picaro’s authenticity serves as a foil to the perceived hypocrisy of conventional society. To such a society, the picaro can represent a dangerous, disruptive freedom, and it reacts by marginalizing him. It is in that distance— between the ostensibly disreputable freedom of the picaro and the hypocrisy of the safely ensconced social being—that the satire occurs. But the trickster, usually an animal acting as a human agent, does not serve a satiric function. For while the picaresque novel takes place in and satirizes human society, the trickster operates in the ahistorical world of myth; where the targets of the picaresque novel are the idiosyncrasies and inconsistencies of a historical human society, trickster stories seek, using the trickster's negative example, to instruct listeners about moral behavior of individuals. In fact, whatever flaws the trickster reveals are thoroughly the trickster's own. They are not a foil to a corrupt society; they are instead essential to who the trickster is. The trickster is a comic figure precisely because of these somewhat irrational, compulsive, and foolish—in short, mortal—actions. Similarly, the trickster is a socially peripheral character not by being forced to the periphery by a hypocritical society, but rather because the trickster's thoroughly flawed character makes the trickster fundamentally antisocial, even anarchic, all the while helping listeners to avoid these flaws. It is this combination of mythic setting and mortal weakness that determines the particular targets of the trickster's comic high jinks: the eternal and unchanging foibles of mortal beings. In one story, for example, a coyote trickster falls in love with a star. The trickster is quite tenacious and human, even though the object of desire is beyond reasonable mortal possibility. In the end the star takes the trickster up into the sky, only to let the trickster fall back to Earth; the story's listeners realize that the trickster has gotten a comeuppance for reaching beyond proper limits, but all the while they recognize in themselves the trickster's extravagant hopes. 8. The passage provides the most support for inferring that conventional society as portrayed in picaresque novels perceives the picaro as representing a dangerous, disruptive freedom for which one of the following reasons? (A) The picaro has the potential to inflict physical injury on society members. (B) The picaro threatens to upset long-standing political structures. (C) The picaro has been marginalized by conventional society. (D) The picaro threatens to force society to face its hypocrisy. (E) The picaro suffers no consequences for indulging in his vices. 9. Based on the author’s view in the passage, applying the term “trickster” to the character of the picaro is most similar to which one of the following? (A) claiming that someone supports an extreme political view when it is clear that the person supports a centrist view (B) characterizing the panda as a bear based on superficial similarities when a deeper understanding shows it to be related instead to the raccoon (C) calling a court decision a milestone as a way of suggesting metaphorically that the decision is significant (D) classifying a species of pine tree as an evergreen even though many of its needles turn brown and fall off during certain seasons (E) describing a common weed as aggressive because it outcompetes certain garden flowers for sun and water GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. 1 -6- 1 1

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    10. The author of the passage states that the flaws of the trickster are not a foil to a corrupt society (middle of the third paragraph) primarily in order to (A) demonstrate that the trickster is a comic figure with supernatural powers (B) allude to the functional similarities between the trickster and the picaro (C) contrast the role of the trickster with that of the picaro (D) illustrate how the trickster is used to engage in social commentary (E) emphasize the disruptive, anarchic character of the trickster 11. Based on the passage, the author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements about the literary criticism mentioned in the second sentence of the first paragraph? (A) It has systematically denigrated the literary traditions of Native Americans. (B) Its use of the trickster appellation has nothing to do with the Native American trickster character. (C) Its reading of picaresque novels is at odds with its reading of Native American trickster stories. (D) It reflects an attempt to be precise in the use of literary terminology. (E) It bases its analysis on an incomplete understanding of trickster stories. 12. In the context of the passage, which one of the following most accurately captures the meaning of the term “authenticity” in the middle of the second paragraph? (A) conforming to an original (B) having certain essential features (C) behaving as others do (D) inspiring absolute trust (E) following one’s natural inclinations 13. The author refers to the story concerning the coyote trickster and the star for each of the following reasons EXCEPT: (A) It provides evidence showing why coyotes make particularly poignant trickster characters. (B) It illustrates the claim that the targets of trickster stories are human foibles. (C) It supports the assertion that tricksters are comic figures. (D) It illustrates a way in which human listeners can identify with the trickster figure. (E) It indicates that one typically human trait tricksters can have is extravagant desire. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. 1 1 -7- 1

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    (5) (10) (15) (20) (25) (30) (35) (40) (45) (50) Passage A is adapted from an essay by historian Christopher Ricks; passage B is from the introduction, by historian Paulina Kewes, to a book in which Ricks’s essay appears. Passage A In her 1996 history of plagiarism in English Renaissance drama, Laura J. Rosenthal tells us that her purpose is to “question differences between plagiarism, imitation, adaptation, repetition, and originality.” But such rhetorical questioning invariably leads to the required postmodern answer: that there is no difference between these things—other than that those in power use the opprobrious term “plagiarism” when the work in question emanates from those whom they dislike. Though the book is animated by a political fervor that is clearly moral, the author writes as if a political approach has to extirpate all moral considerations from any discussion of plagiarism. What in moral terms is a matter of honesty or dishonesty—plagiarism being dishonest—is instead reduced to “the cultural location of the text and the position of the author.” The consequence of a historical approach that seeks to “delegitimize” the distinction between imitation and plagiarism is that it demeans and degrades moral thought. That no moral standard is universal does not of itself entail that moral standards are nothing but expressions of power. Moral conventions, though not universal, may be valuable, indispensable, worthy of respect. The extirpation of moral considerations from political histories such as this one is a sad loss to political history. Passage B The idea of plagiarism, like all ideas, has a history. To earlier generations it had semantic inflections and resonances different from those we recognize today. The varied impulses behind these varying views—which have themselves evolved in response to commercial circumstances, new theories of artistic creation, and developments in copyright law—have repeatedly complicated judgments of plagiarism. Despite an abiding sense that plagiarism is morally wrong, there has been much fluidity in the way the charge has been applied, and virtually identical acts of illicit appropriation have been sometimes denounced, sometimes excused, and sometimes praised. Christopher Ricks is suspicious of historical approaches to ethical issues; to him, emphasis on change across generations produces an extenuating moral relativism that shields the evil of plagiarism from its due obloquy. But there are historical approaches, and there are historical approaches. Ricks is rightly dismissive of the postmodern reduction of moral standards to expressions of power. And it is also true that there has been some shoddy scholarship that anachronistically projects modern-day ideologies having to do with gender, race, or class onto historically remote controversies. Yet bad history is no argument against history itself. To reconstruct the (55) (60) attitudes of the past is not necessarily to vindicate them. It is merely to acknowledge that whatever we might think is the correct way of apprehending plagiarism—and there is hardly a consensus on the matter even today—our predecessors may not, and often did not, share our perspectives. 14. Both passages are concerned with answering which one of the following questions? (A) How did the modern concept of the author develop in previous centuries? (B) During what historical period did moral strictures against plagiarism originate? (C) How has the relationship between moral standards and power changed over time? (D) What are the significant differences between plagiarism and simple imitation? (E) How is the moral dimension of plagiarism to be understood historically? 15. The authors of the two passages would be most likely to agree that (A) despite widely held beliefs to the contrary, there is no significant difference between plagiarism and imitation (B) the fact that no moral position is universal suggests that moral standards are ultimately little more than manifestations of power (C) currently widespread views regarding plagiarism are more stringent than the views held by most of our predecessors (D) historical scholarship that focuses on changes in attitudes toward plagiarism ultimately absolves plagiarists of responsibility for their actions (E) an inferior kind of historical scholarship practiced today has a tendency to project current ideological preoccupations inappropriately onto the past GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. 1 -8- 1 1

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    16. Which one of the following is a central purpose common to both passages? (A) to trace the historical development of an important idea (B) to find fault with a way of approaching a scholarly topic (C) to examine shifting scholarly attitudes toward a particular topic (D) to explain why a type of scholarship has become dominant (E) to argue that a particular book is deeply problematic 17. By using the phrase “political fervor” (first sentence of the second paragraph of passage A), the author of passage A suggests that Rosenthal exhibits (A) a zealous determination to transform traditional categories of thought (B) an intense ambition to exercise influence over public policy (C) a powerful desire to foster political revolution (D) a passionate eagerness to provoke heated debate (E) a heartfelt support for a political party 18. It can be inferred that the author of passage B regards the historical approach of the author of passage A as (A) irresponsible (B) incomprehensible (C) deceitful (D) simplistic (E) reprehensible 19. Passage A asserts that the inevitable answer to the question raised in Rosenthal’s book is that (A) political history must avoid engaging in the consideration of moral issues (B) there is no difference between plagiarism, imitation, and adaptation (C) moral conventions are worthy of respect (D) there has been much fluidity in the way the charge of plagiarism has been applied (E) bad history is not an argument against history itself 20. Which one of the following most accurately characterizes the relationship between the two passages? (A) Passage B recommends an approach to historical scholarship, and the historical analysis in passage A conforms to that recommendation. (B) Passage B advances an argument that is undermined by the evidence offered in passage A. (C) Passage B supports the overall argument advanced in passage A but also indicates that passage A errs in some of its details. (D) Passage B concurs with certain views in passage A but also suggests that the author of passage A carries his position to an unjustifiable extreme. (E) Passage B implies that all of the assertions made by the author of passage A, though interesting, are misguided. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. 1 1 -9- 1

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    (5) (10) (15) (20) (25) (30) (35) (40) (45) (50) (55) The use of criminal sanctions against corporations is well established, but the practice has recently come under fire from legal theorists who maintain that corporations should be held civilly rather than criminally liable for wrongdoing. Civil liability, these theorists argue, shares important features with criminal liability: both impose punishment on a company, both aim at deterrence, and both degrade a company’s reputation. Yet, they claim, civil liability is better able to determine appropriate levels of damages. Furthermore, because criminal liability causes a greater loss of reputation, its overall cost to corporations is far higher than that of civil liability; this additional cost is borne by society at large in the form of higher product prices. Finally, civil liability is also more cost-effective from the point of view of the government: the greater procedural protections of criminal law make deterrence through criminal prosecution extremely expensive. Even if it is less economical, however, criminal liability is a much stronger deterrent. The considerable enforcement powers involved, including the ability to detain and question corporate officials, are themselves significant deterrents. Furthermore, the fact that private civil litigation requires an identifiable victim with the necessary resources to commence litigation weakens its deterrent impact. Most importantly, the main function of criminal law is to censure wrongdoing and to emphasize that society forcefully rejects such conduct. Civil liability is ill suited for this purpose. Other legal theorists who do not object to criminal sanctions per se argue that individuals within corporations, rather than corporations themselves, are the appropriate target of criminal prosecution in cases involving corporate wrongdoing. They maintain that individuals within corporations are more responsive to deterrence because they generally fear prosecution and the loss of employment that can result from it. Additionally, they say, punishment of a corporation, in the form of a fine, essentially punishes shareholders, creditors, employees who may be laid off, and ultimately the public, which is forced to absorb higher prices. However, this approach is also misguided. Corporations often bury responsibility within complex hierarchies, with the result that no individual responsible for corporate misdeeds can be identified. Another problem is that under this approach, a corporation will often find it cheaper to designate and compensate an internal scapegoat to face prosecution than to refrain from wrongdoing. The most effective way to ensure that corporations improve their practices is to hold corporations themselves criminally liable for their conduct. Indeed, criminal liability works on shareholders as well as corporate officers and employees: because criminal punishment of corporations decreases their wealth, it can motivate shareholders to push for better corporate practices. Arguments that shareholders and employees need economic protection are outweighed by the greater societal interest in ensuring the safety of employees, the public, and the environment. 21. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the passage? (A) Although the use of criminal sanctions against corporations has recently faced criticism, it remains the most effective way of deterring corporate wrongdoing. (B) While civil sanctions against corporations would be more cost-effective than criminal sanctions, it is difficult to identify victims of corporate wrongdoing who have the resources to file civil suits. (C) Neither civil sanctions against corporations nor criminal sanctions against individuals within corporations are capable of deterring corporate wrongdoing. (D) The best way to ensure that corporations improve their practices is to use criminal sanctions against both corporations and individuals within corporations. (E) The use of criminal sanctions against individuals within corporations is preferable to the use of civil sanctions because the latter fails to censure wrongdoing adequately. 22. Which one of the following most accurately describes the author’s purpose in saying that corporations often bury responsibility within complex hierarchies? (A) to explain why corporations might find it advantageous to appoint an internal scapegoat (B) to highlight the reasons why individuals are, according to critics of corporate criminal liability, more responsive to deterrence (C) to underscore the extent to which corporate criminal liability penalizes certain people unfairly (D) to indicate that the proposal that individuals be subject to criminal liability for corporate wrongdoing is likely to be impracticable (E) to suggest that critics of criminal corporate liability have misunderstood the legal definition of criminal liability GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. 1 -10- 1 1

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    23. It can be inferred from the passage that legal theorists who recommend the use of civil rather than criminal sanctions to combat corporate wrongdoing believe that (A) corporate criminal liability provides no incentive for individual corporate employees to refrain from wrongdoing (B) there are more procedural protections in criminal law than there should be (C) censuring wrongdoing is not the main function of criminal law (D) the costs inflicted on corporations by criminal convictions are inappropriately high in most cases (E) in most cases civil sanctions against a corporation do not harm that corporation’s reputation 24. Which one of the following does the author of the passage assert to be true? (A) Civil liability is better able to assess appropriate levels of damages. (B) Employees are just as likely to be harmed by civil sanctions against a corporation as by criminal sanctions. (C) Deterrence is the main aim of both criminal and civil liability. (D) Individuals within corporations are more easily deterred from wrongdoing than are corporations themselves. (E) Private civil litigation against a corporation cannot occur without an identifiable victim. 25. It can be inferred from the passage that those who support the criminal prosecution of individuals within corporations rather than the criminal prosecution of corporations believe that (A) shareholders generally do not have the power to influence a corporation to refrain from wrongdoing (B) corporate employees have incentive to refrain from wrongdoing only if they are subject to individual criminal prosecution (C) it is more difficult to prosecute a corporation for wrongdoing than it is to prosecute an individual within that corporation (D) it is unjust for the public to have to pay, through higher product prices, the costs incurred by a corporation as a result of criminal prosecution (E) corporate wrongdoing rarely harms an identifiable victim with the resources necessary to sue 26. Suppose a corporation has for decades polluted a river on which a major city is located with toxic waste known to increase the incidence of certain forms of cancer. Which one of the following scenarios would most closely conform to the author’s views regarding how corporate wrongdoing is most effectively addressed? (A) In response to criminal prosecution of the corporation, several of the corporation’s shareholders put pressure on the corporation’s board of directors to ensure that the corporation will dispose of waste in an environmentally sound manner. (B) In order to assist in civil litigation against the corporation, the federal government moves to expand the use of enforcement powers traditionally reserved for criminal prosecution. (C) The corporation’s largest shareholders are sued by several residents of the city who suffer from a form of cancer associated with the toxic waste dumped by the corporation. (D) The city prosecutes the corporation’s top executives for violating several city ordinances when they ordered the dumping of toxic waste into the river. (E) The city government and several residents of the city hold a press conference in which they attempt to undermine the reputation of the corporation and thereby pressure the corporation to change its practices. 27. The author would be most likely to agree with which one of the following statements? (A) In many instances, corporations that are not deterred by the threat of criminal sanctions would be deterred by the threat of civil sanctions. (B) The main function of civil liability is to punish harmful acts in cases where no individual responsible for corporate misdeeds can be identified. (C) Currently, corporations are more often subject to civil litigation than to criminal prosecution. (D) Many people who criticize the use of criminal sanctions to deter corporate wrongdoing believe that such wrongdoing seldom causes harm to individuals. (E) In a significant number of cases, corporations engage in wrongdoing that does not harm anyone with sufficient resources to sue. S T O P IF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY. DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST. 1 1 -11- 1

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    SECTION II Time—35 minutes 26 Questions Directions: The questions in this section are based on the reasoning contained in brief statements or passages. For some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question. You should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. After you have chosen the best answer, blacken the corresponding space on your answer sheet. 1. Many people who simply enjoy listening to popular music do not realize that it has been used to express religious and political messages. After all, popular music has repeatedly been adopted by social movements to express their viewpoints, since it has the potential to contribute to the "conversion" of nonmembers to the movement's position, as well as to raise the morale and to express the solidarity of the movement's participants. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? (A) Popular music accounts for the success of social movements. (B) Popular music's entertainment value has been overemphasized. (C) Popular music is the most effective way of converting people to social movements. (D) Popular music has purposes other than mere entertainment. (E) Popular music has a profound emotional impact on its listeners. 2. Council president: Councilmember Smith has proposed a new city ordinance prohibiting the use of the “bait- and-switch” sales tactic. Smith must have amnesia. Four years ago he owned an appliance store that was famous for its use of bait-and-switch. Clearly, Smith's proposed ordinance does not even merit consideration. The council president's reasoning is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the president (A) dismisses the proposed ordinance because of its source rather than because of its content (B) takes a single fact that is incompatible with a claim as enough to show that claim to be false (C) fails to make a needed distinction between deceptive sales tactics and legitimate methods of increasing sales (D) draws a conclusion that simply restates a claim presented in support of that conclusion (E) generalizes from a limited number of instances of a certain kind to a instances of that kind GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. 2 -12- 2 2 2

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