Skip to content
Class Notes

Class Notes for Development Across the Life Span, 8th Edition

  • Psychology
  • 376 pages
  • Shared February 2025
  • 109 downloads

Improve your learning with Class Notes for Development Across the Life Span, 8th Edition, packed with key course insights.

Preview 31 of 376 pages

See the first 31 pages exactly as they appear in the document.

  1. Page 1
    Read page 1 as text

    Instructor’s Manual Alan Swinkels St. Edward's University DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN Eighth Edition Robert S. Feldman University of Massachusetts, Amherst

  2. Page 2
  3. Page 3
    Read page 3 as text

    1 Chapter 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT CONTENTS Chapter - at - a - Glance 2 Learning Objectives 3 Chapter Outline 4 Lecture Launchers 1 3 Activities for the First Day of Class 1 3 Biographies of the Theorists 13 Introducing Developmental Theories 1 4 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory 1 4 Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky 1 4 Student Activities 1 5 Supplemental Reading 18 Multimedia Ideas 2 0 Handouts 2 1

  4. Page 4
    Read page 4 as text

    2 CHAPTER - AT - A - GLANCE Chapter Outline Instructor’s Resources Professor Notes An Orientation to Lifespan Development Characterizing Lifespan Development The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development Influences on Lifespan Development Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature — and Nurture — of Lifespan Develo p ment Learning Objectives 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 Lecture Launcher 1.1 Student Activity 1.1 M yDevelopmentLab Video: Evolutionary Psychology Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the Unique Qualities of Human Beings The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development Evolutionary Perspectives: Our Ancestors’ Contributions to Behavior Why “Which Approach Is Right?” Is the Wrong Question Learning Objectives 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11 Lecture Launchers 1.2 , 1.3 , 1.4 , 1.5 Student Activities 1.7 , 1.8 Research Methods Theories and Hypotheses: Posing Developmental Questions Choosing a Research Strategy: Answering Questions Correlational Studies Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect Theoretical and Applied Research: Complementary Approaches Measuring Developmental Change Ethics and Research Learning Objectives 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18 Student Activities 1. 2 , 1.3 , 1.4 , 1.5 , 1.6 M yDevelopmentLab Video: Research Methods MyDevelopmentLab Video: Ethics and Psychological Research < Return to Contents

  5. Page 5
    Read page 5 as text

    3 LEARNING OBJECTIVES LO 1.1: Define the field of lifespan development and describe what it encompasses. LO 1.2: Describe the areas that lifespan development specialists cover. LO 1.3: Describe some of the basic influences on human development. LO 1.4: Summarize four key issues in the field of lifespan development. LO 1.5: Describe how the psychodynamic perspective explains lifespan d e velopment. LO 1.6: Describe how the behavioral perspective explains lifespan deve l opment. LO 1.7: Describe how the cognitive perspective explains lifespan develo p ment. LO 1.8: Describe how the humanistic perspective explains lifespan develo p ment. LO 1.9: Describe how the contextual perspective explains lifespan develo p ment. LO 1.10: Describe how the evolutionary perspective explains lifespan deve l opment. LO 1.11: Discuss the value of applying multiple pe r spectives to lifespan development. LO 1.12: Describe the role that theories and hypotheses play in the study of develo p ment. LO 1.13: Compare the two major categories of lifespan development research. LO 1.14: Identify different types of correlational studies and their relationship to cause and e f fect. LO 1.15: Explain the main features of an experiment. LO 1.16: Distinguish between theoretical research and applied research. LO 1.17: Compare longitudinal research, cross - sectional research, and seque n tial research . LO 1.18: Describe some ethical issues that affect psychological research. < Return to Contents

  6. Page 6
    Read page 6 as text

    4 CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Prologue: New Conceptions A. Louise Brown, the first “test tube baby , ” was born by IVF 28 years ago. B. Lifespan development research interests related to Louise Brown’s story : 1. Lifespan development researchers who investigate behavior at the level of biological proces s es might determine if Louise’s functioning prior to birth was affected by her conception ou t side the womb. 2. Specialists in lifespan development who study genetics might examine how the genetic e n dowment from Louise’s parents affects her later behavior. 3. For lifespan development specialists who investigate the ways thinking changes over the course of life, Louise’s life might be examined in terms of how her understanding of the n a ture of her conception changed as she grew older. 4. Researchers in lifespan development who focus on physical growth might consider whether her growth rate differed from chi l dren conceived more traditionally. 5. Lifespan development experts who specialize in the social world and social relationships might look at the ways that Louise interacted with others and the kinds of friendships she d e veloped. II. An Orientation to Lifespan Development Learning Objectives 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 Lecture Launcher 1.1 Student Activity 1.1 MyDevelopmentLab Video: Evolutionary Psychology A. LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT is the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire lifespan. 1. Developmental psychologists test their assumptions about the nature and course of human development by applying scientific methods. 2. Lifespan development focuses on human development. a) Universal principles of development b) Cultural, racial, ethnic differences c) Individual traits and characteristics 3. Lifespan developmentalists view development as a lifelong, continuing process. 4. Lifespan developmentalists focus on change and growth in addition to stability, consistency, and continuity in people’s lives . 5. Lifespan developmentalists are interested in people’s lives from the moment of conception until death. B. The Scope of the Field 1. Topical Areas a) PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT involves the body’s physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep as a determinant of behavior. b) COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT involves the ways that growth and change in learning, memory, problem solving, and intelligence influence a person’s behavior. c) PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT involves the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the lifespan . d) SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT is the way in which individuals ’ interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life. 2. Age Ranges and Individual Differences a) The lifespan is usually divided into broad age ranges. (1) Prenatal period (conception to birth)

  7. Page 7
    Read page 7 as text

    5 (2) Infancy and toddlerhood (birth to age 3) (3) Preschool period (ages 3 to 6) (4) Middle childhood (ages 6 to 12) (5) Adolescence (ages 12 to 20) (6) Young adulthood (ages 20 to 40) (7) Middle adulthood (ages 40 to 60) (8) Late adulthood (age 60 to death) b) It is important to remember that people mature at different rates and reach developmental milestones at different points. (1) These broad periods of development are social constructions. A social construction is a shared notion of reality, one that is widely accepted but is a function of society and culture at a given time. c) Environmental factors, such as one’s culture, can play a significant role in determining the age at which a particular event is likely to occur. d) In addition, age ranges are averages and some people will show substantial deviation. C. Influences on Development 1. One’s COHORT is the group of people born around the same time and same place. 2. HISTORY - GRADED INFLUENCES are the biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment. 3. AGE - GRADED INFLUENCES are biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when or where they are raised. 4. SOCIOCULTURAL - GRADED INFLUENCES include the impact of social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual, depending on such variables as ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership. 5. NON - NORMATIVE LIFE EVENTS are specific, atypical events that occur in a particular person’s life at a time when they do not happen to most people. 6. Developmental Diversity and Your Life : How Culture, Ethnicity, and Race Influence Development a) Developmentalists must take into consideration broad cultural factors and ethnic, racial, socioeconomic, and gender differences if they are to achieve an understanding of how people change and grow throughout the lifespan. b) Progress concerning issues of human diversity has been slow in the field of lifespan development. c) Members of the research community have sometimes used terms such as race and ethnic group in inappropriate ways. (1) Race is a biological concept referring to classifications based on physical and structural characteristics. (2) Ethnic group and ethnicity are broader terms, referring to cultural background, nationality, religion, and language. d) There is little agreement about which names best reflect different races and ethnic groups (i.e., African American or black). e) Race is not independent of environmental and cultural contexts. D. Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature — and Nurture — of Lifespan Development 1. Continuous Change versus Discontinuous Change a) CONTINUOUS CHANGE involves gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels. b) DISCONTINUOUS CHANGE is development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages. 2. Critical and Sensitive Periods: Gauging the Impact of Environmental Events

  8. Page 8
    Read page 8 as text

    6 a) A CRITICAL PERIOD is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences. b) Because individuals are now considered more malleable than was first thought, developmentalists are more likely to speak of SENSITIVE PERIODS as a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences. 3. Lifespan Approaches versus a Focus on Particular Periods a) Early developmentalists focused on “infancy” and “adolescence.” b) Today , the entire lifespan is seen as important for several reasons. (1) Growth and change continue throughout life. (2) An important part of every person’s environment is the other people around him or her, the person’s social environment. 4. The Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture on Development a) Nature refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents. (1) It encompasses MATURATION , any factor that is produced by the predetermined unfolding of genetic information. b) Nurture refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior. 5. The Later Action of Nature and Nurture a) Developmental psychologists reject the notion that behavior is the result solely of either nature or nurture. b) It is useful to think of the nature - nurture controversy as opposite ends of a continuum, with particular behaviors falling somewhere between the two ends. III. Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development Learning Objectives 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 1.10, 1.11 Lecture Launchers 1.2 , 1.3 , 1.4 , 1.5 Student Activities 1.7 , 1.8 A. THEORIES are explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles. B. The PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE is the approach that states behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts of which a person has little awareness or control. 1. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory a) PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior. b) According to Freud (1856 – 1939): (1) The unconscious is a part of the personality about which a person is unaware and is responsible for much of our everyday behavior. (2) One’s personality has three aspects: (a) ID: the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality present at birth that represents primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. (i) Operates according to the pleasure principle , in which the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension. (b) EGO: the part of personality that is rational and reasonable. (i) Acts as a buffer between the outside world and the primitive id. (ii) Operates on the reality principle , in which instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the person into society. (c) SUPEREGO: the aspect of personality that represents a person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong. (i) Develops about age five or six.

  9. Page 9
    Read page 9 as text

    7 (ii) Learned from parents, teachers, and other significant figures. (3) Freud suggested that PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT is a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part. (a) Oral (birth to 12 – 18 months) (b) Anal (12 – 18 months to 3 years) (c) Phallic (3 to 5 – 6 years) (d) Latency (5 – 6 years to adolescence) (e) Genital (adolescence to adulthood) (4) If children are unable to gratify themselves sufficiently or receive too much gratification, a FIXATION , behavior reflecting an earlier stage of development, may occur. 2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory a) PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT is the approach that encompasses changes in our understanding of individuals, their interactions with others, and their standing as members of society. b) Erikson (1902 – 1994) suggested that developmental change occurs throughout our lives in eight distinct stages. (1) Trust vs. mistrust (birth to 12 – 18 months) (2) Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (12 – 18 months to 3 years) (3) Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 5 – 6 years) (4) Industry vs. inferiority (5 – 6 years to adolescence) (5) Identity vs. role diffusion (adolescence to adulthood) (6) Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood) (7) Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) (8) Ego integrity vs. despair (late adulthood) c) Each stage emerges in a fixed pattern and is similar for all people. d) Each stage presents a crisis or conflict that each individual must address sufficiently at a particular age. e) No crisis is ever fully resolved, which makes life increasingly complicated. f) Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that development continued throughout the lifespan . 3. Assessing the Psychodynamic Perspective a) Contemporary psychological research supports the idea that unconscious memories have an influence on our behavior. b) The notion that people pass through stages in childhood that determine their adult personalities has little research support. c) Because Freud based his theory on a small sample of upper - middle class Austrians living during a strict, puritanical era, it is questionable how applicable the theory is to mu l ticultural populations. d) Because his theory focuses on men, it has been criticized as sexist and devaluing women. e) Erikson’s view that development continues throughout the lifespan is highly important and has received considerable support. f) Erikson also focused more on men than women. g) Much of Erikson’s theory is too vague to test rigorously. h) In sum, the psychodynamic perspective provides a good description of past behavior, but imprecise predictions of future behavior. C. The BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment. 1. Behaviorists reject the notion that people universally pass through a series of stages. 2. Development occurs as the result of continuing exposure to specific factors in the environment. 3. Development is viewed as quantitative rather than qualitative. 4. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING is a type of learning in which an organism responds in a

  10. Page 10
    Read page 10 as text

    8 particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response. a) John B. Watson (1878 – 1958) argued that by effectively controlling a person’s environment, it was possible to produce virtually any behavior. 5. OPERANT CONDITIONING is a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its association with positive or negative consequences. a) B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1990) claimed that people operate on their environments to bring about a desired state of affairs. b) Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. c) Punishment is the introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal of a desirable stimulus; it will decrease the probability that a behavior will occur in the future. d) When behavior receives no reinforcement , it is likely to be discontinued or extinguished . e) Principles of operant conditioning are used in BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION , a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones. 6. Albert Bandura suggests that a certain amount of learning occurs in the form of SOCIAL - COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY , which is learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model. a) Observer must pay attention to model’s behavior. b) Observer must successfully recall the behavior. c) Behavior must be reproduced accurately. d) Observer must be motivated to learn and carry out behavior. 7. Assessing the Behavioral Perspective a) According to classical and operant conditioning, people and organisms are black boxes in which nothing that occurs inside is understood or even cared about. b) Social - cognitive learning theory argues that what makes people different from rats and pigeons is mental activity , which must be taken into account. c) Social - cognitive learning theory has come to predominate over classical and operant conditioning. D. The COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world. 1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development a) Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) proposed that all people pass in a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages of cognitive development. b) In each stage, the quantity of information increases; the quality of knowledge and understanding changes as well. c) Piaget suggested that human thinking is arranged into schemes, organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions. d) Piaget suggested that the growth of children’s understanding of the world can be explained by two principles: (1) ASSIMILATION is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. (2) ACCOMMODATION is the process that changes existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events . e) Assessing Piaget’s Theory (1) Thousands of investigations have shown it to be largely accurate. (2) Some cognitive skills emerge earlier than Piaget suggested. (3) Some cognitive skills emerge according to a different timetable in non - Western countries. (a) In every culture, some adults never reach Piaget’s highest level of cognitive thought — formal, logical thought.

  11. Page 11
    Read page 11 as text

    9 f) Some developmentalists believe cognitive thought does not develop discontinuously, but slowly, steadily, and continuously. 2. INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACHES provide the model that seeks to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information. a) The theory grew out of the computer age. b) Theorists assume that even complex behaviors such as learning, remembering, categorizing, and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual steps. c) They assume cognitive growth is more quantitative than qualitative. d) They suggest that as people age, they are better able to control their mental processing and change the strategies they choose to process information. e) Assessing Information Processing Approaches : (1) Pay little attention to behavior such as creativity . (2) Do not take into account the social context in which development takes place . 3. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACHES look at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes. a) Cognitive neuroscientists seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activity; for example, by using brain scans. b) This innovative research has identified specific genes associated with some physical and psychological disorders. c) Brains of children diagnosed with the disorder autism show explosive, dramatic growth in the first year of life. d) Assessing the Cognitive Neuroscience Approach (1) Definitely a new frontier (2) Results of investigations are often more descriptive than explanatory E. The HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior. 1. According to this approach, each individual has the ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity, and people naturally seek to reach their full potential. 2. This perspective emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives. 3. Carl Rogers suggests that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected. 4. Abraham Maslow suggests that self - actualization, a state of self - fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way, is a primary goal in life. 5. Assessing the Humanistic Perspective a) The humanistic perspective has not had a major impact on the field of lifespan development. b) It has not identified any sort of broad developmental change that is the result of age or experience. c) Some criticize the theory’s assumption that people are basically good, which is unverifiable. F. The Contextual Perspective : Taking a Broad Approach to Development 1. The BIOECOLOGICAL APPROACH (Bronfenbrenner) is the perspective suggesting that different levels of environment simultaneously influence individuals. a) The microsystem is the everyday, immediate environment such as homes, caregivers, friends, and teachers. b) The mesosystem connects various aspects of the microsystem, linking children to parents, students to teachers, employees to bosses, and friends to friends. c) The exosystem represents such broad influences as local government, the community, schools, places of worship, and the local media. d) The macrosystem represents larger cultural influences such as society in general, types of government, religious systems, and political thought.

  12. Page 12
    Read page 12 as text

    10 e) The chronosystem involves the way the passage of time, including historical events, affects children’s development. 2. There are several advantages to taking a bioecological approach to development. a) It emphasizes the interconnectedness of the influences on development. b) It illustrates that influences are multidirectional. c) It stresses the importance of broad cultural factors that affect development. (1) The dominant Western philosophy is individualism, emphasizing personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of the individual. (2) Collectivism is the notion that the well - being of the group is more important than that of the individual. 3. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory a) Vygotsky (1896 – 1934), a Russian child developmentalist, developed SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY , an approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture. b) Vygotsky argued that children’s understanding of the world is acquired through their problem - solving interactions with adults and other children. c) He also argued that to understand the course of development , we must consider what is meaningful to members of a given culture. d) Sociocultural theory emphasizes that development is the result of recurring reciprocal transactions between people in the child’s environment and the child. e) Assessing Vygotsky’s Theory : (1) Some suggest the strong emphasis on culture and social experience ignores biological factors. (2) Vygostky minimizes the role individuals can play in shaping their own environment. G. Evolutionary Pers p ectives: Our Ancestors ’ Contributions to Behavior 1. EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES seek to identify behavior in today’s humans that is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors . a) Evolutionary perspectives grew out of the work of Charles Darwin , who argued in The Origin of Species that a process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to their environment. b) The evolutionary perspectives argue that our genetic inheritance determines not only such physical traits as skin and eye color, but also certain personality traits and social behaviors. c) The evolutionary perspective draws on the field of ethology (Konrad Lorenz , 1903 – 1989), which examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior. d) The evolutionary perspective encompasses one of the fastest growing areas within the field of lifespan development: behavioral genetics , which studies the effects of heredity on behavior. 2. Assessing the Evolutionary Perspectives a) Some developmentalists criticize the evolutionary perspective for paying insufficient attention to the environment and social factors. b) Others argue that there is no good experimental way to support theories derived from evolution. H. Why “Which Approach Is Right?” Is the Wrong Question 1. Each emphasizes different aspects of development. 2. Psychodynamic approach emphasizes emotions, motivational conflicts, and unconscious determinants of behavior. 3. Behavioral approaches emphasize overt behavior. 4. Cognitive and humanist approaches look more at what people think than what they do. 5. The evolutionary perspective focuses on how inherited biological factors underlie development. IV. Research Methods

  13. Page 13
    Read page 13 as text

    11 Learning Objectives 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18 Student Activities 1.2 , 1.3 , 1.4 , 1.5 , 1.6 MyDevelopmentLab Video: Research Methods MyDevelopmentLab Video: Ethics and Psychological Research A. Theories and Hypotheses: Posing Developmental Questions 1. The SCIENTIFIC METHOD is the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data. a) The scientific method involves the formulation of theories, broad explanations, and predictions about phenomena. b) Theories are used to develop HYPOTHESES , predictions stated in a way that permit testing. B. Choosing a Research Strategy : Answering Questions 1. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists. a) The strength and direction of a relationship between two factors is represented by a mathematical score, called a correlational coefficient, which ranges from +1.0 (positive) to – 1 .0 (negative). (1) A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one factor increases, it can be predicted that the value of the other will also increase. (2) A negative correlation informs us that as the value of one factor increases, the value of the other factor declines. b) Finding that two variables are correlated with one another proves nothing about causality. 2. Types of Correlational Studies a) NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION is the observation of a naturally occurring behavior without intervention in the situation. (1) This research has the advantage of seeing people [children] in their natural habitats. (2) Critiques (a) Researchers cannot control factors of interest and may be unable to see enough behavior to draw any conclusions. (b) Children may know they are being watched and modify their behavior. (3) Ethnography is a method borrowed from the field of anthropology and used to investigate cultural questions. (a) Researchers act as participant observers, living for a period of weeks, months, or even years in another culture or environment. (b) Ethnography has the same drawbacks as other naturalistic observation , in addition to the problems of generalizing from one culture to another or misinterpreting what is observed. (4) In qualitative research, researchers select particular settings and seek to describe, in narrative fashion, what is occurring, and why. b) CASE STUDIES involve extensive, in - depth interviews with a particular individual or a small group of individuals. (1) Case studies are designed to derive broader principles or draw tentative conclusions that might apply to others. (2) Diaries may be used in that participants are asked to record specific behaviors. c) SURVEY RESEARCH , where people are chosen to represent some larger population and are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic. d) PSYCHOPHYSI OLOGI CAL METHODS focus on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. C. Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect 1. An EXPERIMENT is a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for subjects or participants.

  14. Page 14
    Read page 14 as text

    12 2. These are called TREATMENTS , procedures applied by an investigator based on two different experiences devised for participants. 3. The group receiving the treatment is known as the TREATMENT GROUP or EXPERIMENTAL GROUP . 4. The CONTROL GROUP is the group that receives either no treatment or alternative treatment. 5. The formation of treatment and control groups represents the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE , the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment. 6. In contrast, the DEPENDENT VARIABLE is the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation. 7. A critical step in the design of an experiment is to assign participants to different treatment groups on the basis of chance alone, called random assignment , allowing the researcher, through laws of statistics, to draw conclusions with confidence. 8. Choosing a Research Setting a) First, researchers choose a SAMPLE , a group of participants chosen for the experiment. b) FIELD STUDY is a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting. c) LABORATORY STUDY is a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant. D. Theoretical and Applied Research 1. THEORETICAL RESEARCH is research designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge. 2. APPLIED RESEARCH is research meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems. E. Measuring Developmental Change 1. In LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH , the behavior of one or more individuals is measured as the subjects age . a) They require a tremendous investment of time. b) There is the possibility of participant attrition, or loss. c) Participants may become “test - wise.” 2. From Research to Practice: Developmental Research to Improve Public Policy a) Research on the benefits of foster care encouraged legislation, extending eligibility for foster care to older children (Peters et al., 2008). 3. In CROSS - SECTIONAL RESEARCH , people of different ages are compared at the same point in time. a) Differences may be due to cohort effects. b) Selective dropout, where participants in some age groups are more likely to quit participating in the study than others. c) Changes in individuals or groups are unable to be explained. 4. In CROSS - SEQUENTIAL STUDIES , researchers examine a number of different age groups over several points in time. a) This combines longitudinal and cross - sectional research. b) It can tell about age changes and age differences. F. Ethics and Research 1. The Society for Research in Child Development and the American Psychological Association have developed ethical guidelines for researchers. a) Freedom from harm b) Informed consent c) Use of deception d) Maintenance of privacy < Return to Contents

  15. Page 15
    Read page 15 as text

    13 LECTURE LAUNCHERS Lecture Launcher 1.1: Activities for the First Day of Class Humanity : Individually and Collectively Present the following quotation to your students (on a PowerPoint slide, handout, or simply written on the blackboard): Every person is like every other person. Every person is like some other person. Every person is like no other person. (Adapted from Kluckhohn & Murray, 1948, p. 35) Read the quotation and ask students to write three examples of each statement in their notebooks. Ask students to volunteer their answers. Explain to the class that during the semester you will be discussing how developmental psychologists attempt to discover: 1. U niversal human qualities over the course of the lifespan (the first statement ); 2. H ow membership in social groups (gender, religion, ethnicity, nationality, age, etc.) affect s human development (the second statement ); and 3. T hat researchers cannot know the answer to the third statement because all humans are individuals with unique qualities. Psychologists call this human variation. I Once Was Blind… Table 1 - 4 in the textbook offers a fine summary of the major perspectives on lifespan development. Share that table with your students (through Revel, MyPsychLab, or simply on a projection screen) as you distribute Han d out 1 - 1 , which reprints Saxe’s The Blind Men and the Elephant . This poem is a good introduction to why there are so many theoretical perspectives in d evelopmental p sychology. As Feldman states in the text, “…each perspective emphasizes somewhat different aspects of development…the same developmental phenomenon can be looked at from a number of perspectives simultaneously. In fact, some lifespan developmentalists use an eclectic approach, drawing on several perspectives simultaneously.” Although the textbook briefly introduces the major theories of development (Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Cognitive, Humanistic, and Evolutionary) in Chapter 1, later chapters to go into greater depth on each. You may want to introduce these theories in depth in the beginning of the semester. Some students may be confused by the various theories and an early, in - depth introduction provides more opportunities for your students to understand the similarities and differences among the theories. Lecture Launcher 1.2: Biographies of the Theorists Students often find theories more meaningful and understandable when they understand how each theorist’s life influenced the development of theory. You may want to supplement your introduction to the various theories by relating germane points from each theorist’s life. Some useful readings are referenced below and in greater detail in the Supplemental Reading section later in this chapter .

  16. Page 16
    Read page 16 as text

    14 Freud: see Olson & Hergenhan; Miller . Erikson: see Olson & Hergenhan; Miller . Hopkins, J. R. (1995). Erik Homburger Erikson (1902 – 1994). American Psychologist, 50 (9), 796 – 797. Skinner: see Olson & Hergenhan; American Psychologist Bandura: see Olson & Hergenhan; Miller . Piaget: see Flavell; Miller Vygotsky: Blank, G. (1992). Vygotsky: The man and his cause. In L. C. Moll (Ed). Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology . New York: Cambridge University Press. Lecture Launcher 1.3: Introducing Developmental Theories Patricia Miller’s introductory chapter (see Supplemental Reading below for reference) is an excellent guide when developing your first lectures for a course in lifespan development. She asks the following questions:  What is a theory?  What is developmental theory?  Of what value is developmental theory?  How are facts and theories related?  What are the main issues of developmental psychology? Another reference to help you with a lecture on the life cycle and development is Chapter 2 in Daniel Levinson’s book The Seasons of a Woman’s Life (see Supplemental Reading below for reference). He provides a nice history of how the fields of geriatrics and gerontology provided an impetus for developmentalists to think beyond adolescence. Lecture Launcher 1.4: Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory Uri e Bronfenbrenner developed a model for studying the interactions among an individual’s social environments. The five basic structures of the model are the microsystem (family, peers, school, community, media), the mesosystem (interaction between two microsystems ; e.g., parent conferences are an interaction between family and school; the community censoring the media is another example), the exosystem (parent’s jobs, school boards, city council); the macrosystem (a person’s subculture or culture); and the chronosystem (involving the way the passage of time affect s children’s development ) . Explaining Bronfenbrenner’s theory can stimulate a good class discussion about the various interactions among each system. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development (Vol. 6). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Lecture Launcher 1.5: Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky Both Piaget and Vygotsky have influenced how children are taught , especially in elementary school. Piaget emphasized the child as an active learner who progressed through discrete stages of cognitive development. Thus, knowing the child’s appropriate cognitive stage is crucial for appropriate learning to take place. Vygotsky coined the term “zone of proximal development” to show how important the culture and older individuals are in guiding the child through learning. In addition, Vygotsky presaged the mainstrea ming concept, where children with special needs are in the same classes as typical children so that each can learn from the other. You might want to share the “modern” views of these “old timers” with your students. Elkind, D. (1987). Miseducation: Preschoolers at risk . New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Moll, L. (Ed.) (1992). Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press. < Return to Contents

  17. Page 17
    Read page 17 as text

    15 S TUDENT ACTIVITIES Student Activity 1.1: Myths about Aging Quiz Distribute c opies of Handout 1 - 2 to your class. Ask your students to take the quiz and tell them you are going to collect it and save it until you get to the chapters on late adulthood (and then put them where you will remember them!). You can tell your students that late adulthood is a relatively new area of study in developmental psychology. Those who study this life stage are called gerontologists . The reason it is becoming such a popular field of study is that more people are living longer than ever before. Most of your class can expect to live into their 80s or beyond . You might want to ask the class why they think people are living longer. Student Activity 1.2: Design a Research Study An appropriate collaborative learning activity for research methods is to allow students the opportunity to design their own research. Divide your class into groups. Tell them their assignment is to design a study in some area related to human development. Some suggestions are: What foods do infants prefer? Why are children aggressive? Why do adolescents like to hang out at malls? What methods of quitting smoking are most effective? Why do we fall in love? Does having a pet increase the well - being of elderly people? Groups can also brainstorm some ideas of their own. Using Handout 1 - 3 , ask each group to design a study to investigate the topic of their choice. Groups can share their designs with the class and other groups can critique the designs. Student Activity 1.3: Critical Thinking Exercises Here are a few ways you can incorporate critical thinking into your class.  Write a critical thinking question (or several ) on the board just before class begins. As students enter, they should take out a piece of paper and try to answer the question. This is useful for motivating them to read the relevant chapter before class if you give them credit for their answers. You can add additional motivation if you tell them some of the critical thinking questions will be on the test. It’s helpful for grading purposes if you decide ahead of time the three or four main points you are looking for in each question.  You can choose a critical thinking question as an “exit pass.” Discipline yourself to stop lecturing or having class discussion about five mi nutes before class ends (this can be difficult ! ). Students must answer the critical thinking question to exit class. Give them credit for their answers. This is also helpful as a means of taking attendance and preventing students from leaving class early without a good reason. Student Activity 1.4: What If? Lynne A. Bond suggests this exercise to encourage critical thinking about the implications of develo pmental theories. It can be conducted in small groups or individually (in writing). Students are asked to assume that a particular theory is true and to generate the implications. For example, I ask students, “What if Freud’s theory of gender role development is accurate? What would you then expect to find in the development of: (a) a boy who is raised in a single mother - headed household from the time he is one year old? (b) a girl whose parents divorce

  18. Page 18
    Read page 18 as text

    16 when she is three, and whose father single - handedly raises her to adolescence? (c) a girl raised from birth by two lesbian parents? What if the cognitive - developmental perspective is correct? What would you then expect...?” (p. 51). Bond, L. A. (1988). Teaching developmental psychology. In Bronstein, P. & Quina, K. (Eds.), Teaching a psychology of people: Resources for gender and sociocultural awareness . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Student Activity 1.5: How to Think Like a Psychologist Donald McBurney has examined some fundamental principles, vocabulary, and common misconceptions about psychology. Here are a few critical thinking exercises adapted from his book that relate to Chapter 1. 1. Name several theories of science (or, in particular, developmental psychology) that are “facts” in the everyday sense because they are universally accepted as true. 2. How might considering child development as a puzzle to figure out, rather than a mystery to wonder about , lead one to take a different approach to working with children? 3. How would defining violent incidents operationally help one to study the amount of violence on different TV programs? How would that reduce the subjectivity involved in comparing different programs? 4. If you asked one of your grandparent s how child - rearing practices have changed in her or his lifetime, how might s he or he explain the changes? What do you think your grandparents would think of them? 5. How does psyc hology relate to other sciences, such as biology, chemistry, and physics ? McBurney, D. H. ( 2001 ). How to think like a psychologist: Critical thinking in psychology (2 nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Student Activity 1.6: Reading Professional Journals The following assignment (see Handouts 1 - 4 and 1 - 5 ) is designed to acquaint students with research published in the field of developmental psychology. This assignment also familiarizes students with the scientific method and the tone of professional writing. Students can learn to use computer databases to select topics of interest and find various journals. It’s even better to have a selection of journals on hand for the students to browse through. This is a good opportunity to have students check out the methods section and determine whether experimental research or correlational research was used. An alternative way of using this assignment is to have students find two research reports on the same topic and compare how each study was conducted. Which study was their favorite? Why? Finally, you might want to incorporate Handouts 1 - 6 and 1 - 7 into this exercise. These handouts ask students to think critically about research methods, and they can be applied to this or other activities relevant to this chapter. Student Activity 1. 7 : Reflective Journals Keeping a journal throughout the course is a good way for students to integrate material learned in class with their own lives. Determine ahead of time how often students will hand in their journals for comment (h anding in journals on quiz dates makes it easy to remember ) . Keep in mind that if students are graded on their

  19. Page 19
    Read page 19 as text

    17 reflections , they will make a greater effort to give you better quality work. Realize also that it may take a few weeks for students to feel comfortable sharing their lives with you. S tress that any journal material is strictly confidential and will only be read by the instructor. Note : You might want to assign a particular type of notebook or binder so that you can carry all the journals on the day students turn them in. Use Handout 1 - 6 to guide the first reflective journal assignment. Student Activity 1. 8 : Magazine Articles and Cartoons Ann Ewing assigns what she calls a “Psychology in the R eal W orld ” assignment. Students bring in articles or cartoons pertaining to themes and issues in human development and write a short essay on how their article or cartoon illustrates some principle in developmental psychology. You might consider incorporating these into students’ journals (see below) and assign extra credit for the effort. < Return to Contents

  20. Page 20
    Read page 20 as text

    18 SUPPLEMENTAL READING American Psychological Association. (2013 ) . Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5 th ed.). Washington, DC. ( Internet Access: American Psychological Association Style ) Students should become familiar with the “bible” of psychological writing. Bring a copy to class. You might want to pass out copies of Chapter 1 when you introduce the scientific method. You can explain to them that all professional psychological journals follow this particular format. You also might like to refer to Appendix C : Ethical Standards for the Reporting and Publishing of Scientific Information on pages 387 – 396. American Psychological Association. (1992). American Psychologist, 47 (11), 1261. This special issue is dedicated to the contribution made by B. F. Skinner to psychology. In particular, you might like to read articles by Schlinger (pp. 1396 – 1410) and Gewirtz & Pelaez - Nogueras (pp. 1411 – 1422) on Skinner’s views on developmental psychology. Blake, T. (1995). How does psychological development occur? Enduring issues in psychology. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press. This book is one in a series called Opposing Viewpoints . This particular reference (Chapter 3) reprints short excerpts from the writings of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Kohlberg, and Bandura. It’s a good resource for students and could be the basis of a panel or a group discussion. Flavell, J. H. (1965). The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand. This definitive work is not easy reading; however, Chapter 1 introduces Piaget’s theory in an easier style than the rest of the book, and Part III presents a good critique of the theory. Halpern D. F., & Riggio, H. R. (2013). Thinking critically about critical thinking (4 th ed.). New York: Taylor and Francis. The authors present principles of critical thinking and an array of case studies for application. Although the book is geared toward an introductory psychology course, several sections apply to developmental psychology. Olson, M. H ., & Hergenhahn, B. R. ( 2011 ). An introduction to theories of personality ( 8 th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education . Good chapters on Freud, Erikson, Skinner, and Bandura. Kagan, J. (1989). Unstable ideas: Temperament, cognition, and self. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chapter 2 is a good essay on how societal trends affect how psychology researchers study human development. Kluckhohn, C. & Murray, H. A. (1948). Personality: In nature, society, and culture. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

  21. Page 21
    Read page 21 as text

    19 Levinson, D. L. (1996). The seasons of a woman’s life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Chapter 2 provides a nice overview of the history and current thinking on the entire lifespan and human development. Miller, P. H. ( 2009 ). Theories of developmental psychology ( 5 th ed.). New York: Worth . Miller’s book is an excellent and clearly written overview of the major theories in development. The strength of her book is its organization and comparison of theories. Her introductory chapter is a good guide for first lectures. < Return to Contents

  22. Page 22
    Read page 22 as text

    20 MULTIMEDIA IDEAS MyDevelopmentLab Video Series + Discussion Questions The MyDevelopmentLab Video Series engages students and brings to life a wide range of topics spanning prenatal development through the end of the lifespan. New international videos shot on location allow students to observe similarities and differences in human development across various cultures. Video: Evolution ary Psychology Discussion Questions 1. D iscuss the main principles of the evolutionary perspective on psychology. 2. How does an evolutionary viewpoint help us to understand human development over the lifespan? 3. How do evolutionary principles such as mate selection or reproductive advantage inform our understanding of daily human behavior? Video: Scientific Research Methods Discussion Questions 1. Discuss the necessity of both an experimental and a control group for reaching conclusions from research findings. 2. Distinguish between independent and dependent variables. 3. Using the exampl e of trustworthiness discussed in the video, identify the key components of a research design that need to be present. Video: Ethics and Psychological Research Discussion Questions 1. Summarize the basic ethical guidelines that all researchers must follow before conducting research with human or animal subjects. 2. Give 2 or 3 examples of psychological research questions that would be interesting (and perhaps even crucial) to answer, but that could not be ethically investigated using experimentation. 3. Imagine that you are a participant in a research study. What “mental checklist” would you follow to make sure you were being treated in accordance with ethical guidelines? < Return to Contents

  23. Page 23
    Read page 23 as text

    21 Handout 1 - 1 The Blind Men and the Elephant By John Godfrey Saxe It was six men of Indostan To learning much inclined, Who went to see the elephant (Though all of them were blind), That each by observation Might satisfy his mind. The First approached the elephant, And, happening to fall Against his broad and sturdy side, At once began to bawl: “God bless me! but the elephant Is nothing but a wall!” The Second, feeling of the tusk, Cried, “Ho! what have we here So very round and smooth and sharp? To me ‘tis mighty clear This wonder of an elephant Is very like a spear!” The Third approached the animal, And, happening to take The squirming trunk within his hands, Thus boldly up and spake: “I see,” quoth he, “the elephant Is very like a snake!” The Fourth reached out his eager hand, And felt about the knee: “What most this wondrous beast is like Is mighty plain”, quoth he; “‘Tis clear enough the elephant Is very like a tree.” The Fifth, who chanced to touch the ear, Said, “E’en the blindest man Can tell what this resembles most; Deny the fact who can, This marvel of an elephant Is very like a fan!” The Sixth no sooner had begun About the beast to grope, Than, seizing on the swinging tail That fell within his scope, “I see,” quoth he, “the elephant Is very like a rope!” And so these men of Indostan Disputed loud and long, Each in his own opinion Exceeding stiff and strong, Though each was partly in the right, And all were in the wrong! So, oft in theologic wars The disputants, I ween, Rail on in utter ignorance Of what each other mean, And prate about an elephant Not one of them has seen!

  24. Page 24
    Read page 24 as text

    22 Handout 1 - 2 The Myths o f Aging Quiz Circle T for true or F for false. T F 1. The majority of old people (age 65 and older) are senile (have defective memory, are disoriented, or demented). T F 2. The five senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch) all tend to weaken in old age. T F 3. The majority of old people have no interest in, nor capacity for, sexual relations. T F 4. Lung vital capacity tends to decline in old age. T F 5. The majority of old people feel miserable most of the time. T F 6. Physical strength tends to decline in old age. T F 7. At least one - tenth of the aged are living in long - stay institutions (such as nursing homes, mental hospitals, and homes for the aged). T F 8. Aged drivers have fewer accidents per driver than those under age 65. T F 9. Older workers usually cannot work as effectively as younger workers. T F 10. Over three - fourths of the aged are healthy enough to carry out their normal activities. T F 11. The majority of old people are unable to adapt to change. T F 12. Old people usually take longer to learn something new. T F 13. It is almost impossible for the average old person to learn something new. T F 14. Older people tend to react more slowly than do younger people. T F 15. In general, old people tend to be pretty much alike. T F 16. The majority of old people say they are seldom bored. T F 17. The majority of old people are socially isolated. T F 18. Older workers have fewer accidents than younger workers.

  25. Page 25
    Read page 25 as text

    23 Handout 1 - 3 Design a Research Study Working with your group members, design a study related to human development. In doing so, address the following issues: 1. What is your research problem or question? 2. Are you seeking to establish cause and effect (an experimental design ) or looking for a relationship between variables (a correlational design )? 3. What are your variables? Is there a need to identify one as the independent variable and one as the dependent variable? If so, what are they? How are the variables operationally defined? 4. What is your hypothesis? 5. What major developmental design are you using? Note whether you are incorporating longitudinal, cross - sectional, cross - sequential, or cross - cultural methods. 6. Who are the members of your population? How did you draw your sample? Will you have an experimental and control group? If so, how are participants assigned to each group? 7. What data gathering strategies and/or “treatment” will you use? 8. Describe, diagram, or explain your research procedure. 9. What do you think your results will be? 10. How did you minimize bias in your study?

  26. Page 26
    Read page 26 as text

    24 Handout 1 - 4 Professional Journal Assignment The purpose of this assignment is to provide students an opportunity to familiarize themselves with published research. The tasks of the assignment are as follows: 1. Choose an empirical article from a professional journal where the author(s) describe the purpose, method, and results of a scientific investigation. Some examples of relevant journals in d evelopmental p sychology are: Adolescence Aging and Cognition Child Development Death Studies Developmental Psychology Developmental Review Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences Human Development Journal of Black Psychology Journal of Marriage and the Family Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Journal of Youth and Adolescence Merrill - Palmer Quarterly Psychology and Aging Research on Aging Note that not all research articles are complicated reading. As a novice, it might help to browse through the journals until you come upon one that is of interest as well as readable. 2. Identify your article by including a full APA style reference of it at the top of your assignment. 3. Briefly summarize the research article using the headings most common to such empirical reports. These include the Introduction , which generally states a rationale for the investigation and the purpose of the study. The I ntroduction also reviews relevant research. Next is the Method section, which includes a description of the participants, instruments, and procedures. The Results section follows next, which addresses the significant findings of the study. Finally comes the Discussion and C onclusion , where the author s summarize the findings and future directions. Note that in writing an abstract you do not want to reproduce or summarize the entire article. Rather, you want to provide the most salient information as succinctly as possible in each of the aforementioned areas. Further, in some instances you might choose to replicate or incorporate part of the original text. In these cases you MUST put quotation marks around the words you are copying, followed by the page number in parentheses. 4. Type your one - page abstract.

  27. Page 27
    Read page 27 as text

    25 Handout 1 - 5 Sample Abstract Oltjenbruns, K. A. (1991). Positive outcomes of adolescents’ experience with grief. Journal of Adolescent Research, 6 (1), 43 – 53. INTRODUCTION Reports suggest that by the time youngsters finish high school , 90 percent of them will have experienced the death of a family member or friend. Yet, there is very little grief - related literature examining adolescent populations, particularly in terms of possible positive outcomes to grief. Thus, the purpose of this research was to “examine the perceptions of older adolescents regarding positive outcomes, if any, to the grief experience” and “to determine if there are significant differences in responses related to ethnicity, gender, or the personality variable of locus of control” (p. 46). METHOD Participants Research packets were mailed to a computer - generated random sample list of 1,200 addresses. A total of 336 individuals returned consent forms and completed surveys; h owever, only 93 fit the criteria for inclusion in the study. Of these 93 participants, 37 percent were Mexican - American, 63 percent were Anglo - American, 28 percent were male, and 72 percent were female. The age range of participants was 16 to 22 years old. Procedure Participants responded to the question “What positive outcomes, if any, do you feel were the result of your grief experience(s)? Check all that apply” (p. 47). Seven checklist options were included, for example, “have a deeper appreciation for life, developed emotional strength, and increased empathy for others” (p. 47). In order to measure the personality variable, participants also responded to the Rotter I - E Locus of Control Scale. RESULTS Results indicated that 96 percent of the participants identified at least one positive outcome. The most frequent positive outcomes were “deeper appreciation of life (74 percent), greater caring for loved ones (67 percent), strengthened emotional bonds with others (56 percent), and developed emotional strength (53 percent)” (p. 48). The less - noted positive outcomes were “increased empathy for others (47 percent), better communication skills (28 percent), and enhanced problem solving skills (9 percent)” (p. 48). Chi - square tests with Yates correction formula were computed to determine if there were significant differences in responses between ethnic groups or gender. No differences were found. However, “significantly more persons with an internal locus of control orientation reported that better communication skills were a positive outcome of their grief experience ( X 2 = 4.153 [1, N = 93], p < .05)” (p. 48). Some participants added positive outcomes that were not included in the list, for example, “put priorities in a different perspective and made me more independent” (p. 49). DISCUSSION It is suggested that learning more about adolescent grief reactions, both painful and positive outcomes, can be beneficial for both the griever and helper. It is also suggested that more research be conducted.

  28. Page 28
    Read page 28 as text

    26 Handout 1 - 6 Strengths a nd Weaknesses o f Research Methods METHOD STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES Experiment Correlational s tudy Questionnaire/ s urvey Naturalistic o bservation Case s tudy Longitudinal s tudy Cross - sectional s tudy Cross - sequential s tudy

  29. Page 29
    Read page 29 as text

    27 Handout 1 - 7 Evaluating Research Step Critical Thinking Questions 1. Initial observations: The idea 1. What idea or theory underlies this study? 2. What are some assumptions the researcher is making? 3. Is the idea derived from a larger theory and, if so, is it consistent with that theory? 4. Is the context of the problem being taken into account? 2. The hypothesis 1. Is this a testable (answerable) question? 2. Are there any hidden assumptions in the way the research question is stated? 3. Is the researcher introducing any bias into the study? 3. The method 1. Does this approach make sense to you? 2. Is it logically derived from the theory? 3. If it is a laboratory design, how well does it capture the real world? 4. Are any variables being introduced via the design that may distort the results? 4. The experiment (collecting data) 1. Are the results accurate? 2. Are the results presented in appropriate context? 3. What is NOT being reported? 4. Are these results consistent and expected with what is already known? 5. Are there opposing ways of analyzing the results? 5. Criticism 1. Do these results make sense? 2. Could you generate alternative explanations? 3. What is being presented as factual that may be an opinion or a subjectively - held value? 6. Further studies 1. How do you evaluate different explanations for results? 2. Is one better than another? 3. Can they be synthesized into a new alternative? Coats, E. J., Feldman, R. S., & Schwartzberg, S. (1994). Critical thinking: General principles and case studies (pp. 29 – 33). New York: McGraw - Hill.

  30. Page 30
    Read page 30 as text

    28 Handout 1 - 8 Journal Exercise #1 Think of yourself at a particular time in your childhood (e.g., age 10). Using the model from Urie Bronfenbrenner, reflect in your journal about the following: microsystem Describe: your family. your school and teacher. your peer group. the media – favorite TV shows, books, movies. your surrounding community. mesosystem Describe: how your parents interacted with your peers. how your parents interacted with your school. whether your parents helped with schoolwork. how your community supported your school or activities (e.g., sports). exosystem Describe: your parents’ jobs. vacations you took. whether there was a divorce in your family. macrosystem Describe: your ethnic heritage. your religious affiliations. whether you lived in an urban (city) or rural (country) setting. your social class (poor, working class, middle class, wealthy). what was going on in the world at the time (e.g., Gulf war, who was president, etc.). chronosystem Describe: how you were impacted by a n historical event (such as the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001) or more gradual historical changes (the change in the number of women who work outside of the home).

  31. Page 31
    Read page 31 as text

    29 Chapter 2 THE START OF LIFE: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT CONTENTS Chapter - at - a - Glance 30 Learning Objectives 3 1 Chapter Outline 32 Lecture Launchers 40 The Epidemic That Wasn’t — Crack Babies 40 Fertility 40 Infertility 40 In Vitro Fertilization and Multiple Births 41 My Mother, Myself 42 Student Activities 43 Supplemental Reading 45 Multimedia Ideas 46 Handouts 47

345 more pages in the full document

Unlock it once and it stays in your library, ready to chat with or turn into flashcards.

Unlock the full document

More Psychology study materials

See all

Study this document with CramX

Once it is in your library, every tool can work from it.