Class Notes for Psychology: An Exploration, 4th Edition
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Instructor’s Manual For Psychology: An Exploration Fourth Edition SAUNDRA K. CICCARELLI Gulf Coast Community College J. NOLAN WHITE Georgia College and State University Prepared by Alan Swinkels St. Edward’s University
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CONTENTS Preface Revel: Pearson’s Interactive Learning Delivery System Instructor’s Resources & Frequently Asked Questions General Class Activities About the Instructor’s Resource Manual Author TEXTBOOK CHAPTERS Chapter 1 the science of psychology Chapter 2 the biological perspective Chapter 3 sensation and perception Chapter 4 consciousness Chapter 5 learning Chapter 6 memory Chapter 7 cognitive psychology Chapter 8 development across the life span Chapter 9 motivation, stress, and emotion Chapter 10 social psychology Chapter 11 theories of personality Chapter 12 psychological disorders Chapter 1 3 psychological therapies
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PREFACE Why a New Format for the Instructor’s Manual? The Ciccarelli/White Instructor’s Resource Manual is delivered in a format created with the direct feedback of teac hers in mind. We spoke with a range of instructors — from those who have been teaching only a couple of semesters, to those who have been teaching for many years. Overwhelmingly, the response we received around potential changes to the instructor’s manual in volved accessibility and ease of use. Many instructors lamented the “telephone books” they have received from various publishers and how these large volumes make it difficult to know exactly what rests inside. Concerns arose around paper usage — printing tho usands of these manuals which end up sitting on shelves seems a waste when we are all trying to conserve resources. With these concerns in mind, we asked a number of instructors what the ideal instructor’s manual would be like. Here is what they said: i ntegration of resources - what goes where? For this manual, we created Lecture Outlines for each chapter — using the chapter outlines to integrate the suggested lecture discussions, activities and other resources directly into the appropriate sections. In ad dition , we included Chapter - at - a - Glance grids at the start of each chapter. These tables provide brief outlines summarizing the key information from the Lecture Outlines. Instructors can quickly and easily see the key points of each section of the text, as well as classroom activities and the “best of” media resources available. c lick and view - seeing the resources The advantage to reviewing the Instructor’s Manual on your computer is the ability to link to specific sections. Lecture discussions, activit ies , and other resources are integrated in the Lecture Guide. By clicking on the hyperlinks , you can easily jump to the section or page you want to review . ( N ote with the Word document, press CTRL + click . ) Hotlinks are provided at the send of each section, ( ► Return to Lecture Guide ) so you can easily jump back to where you were, or back to the start of the chapter ( ▲Return to Table of Contents .) p rint what you want, when you want Many instructors expressed a desire to print only portions of the Instructor’s Manual rather than the entire book . With our new Lecture Guides and the ability to click on relevant resources, instructors can print and bring to class those resources they find useful. Of course if any instructor would prefer to have the entire M anual printed and available in hard copy , this can be arranged. Please just ask your local Pearson sales representative. a ccess to the “best of” materials Pearson Education publishes a number of introductory psychology texts and the instructors we spoke with recommended we review all of our intro ductory psychology instructor’s manuals, identify the best lecture suggestions , classroom activities , and assignments found in each , and use these resources to ensure each Pearson introductory text offers instructors the “best of” experience. ▲ Return to Main Contents
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GETTING STARTED WITH REVEL https://www .pearson.com/revel More than 5,000 Revel instructors are connecting and sharing ideas. They’re energizing their classrooms and brainstorming teaching challenges via Pearson’s growing network of faculty communities. The Revel community is an open, online space where members come together to collaborate and learn from each other. If you’re currently teaching with Revel or consid ering Revel for use in your class, we invite you to join the Revel community. Getting started with Revel is easy: • Identify the Problems You Want to Solve Do you want students to come to class more prepared, having read their assigned reading? Are your go als focused on improving student success in your course? Are you looking to increase student engagement? Are you interested in flipping your classrooms so that students learn basic course content outside of class, allowing for more active and applied in - cl ass learning? • Keep It Simple The process of accessing and navigating these learning solutions needs to be simple and intuitive. Revel has built - in, frequent, low - stakes assessments for students to easily assess their understanding of the material, without getting sidetracked from their required reading assignment. • Track Learning Gains Educators who track and measure learning gains are able to make informed decisions about product implementations, course transformations, and redesigns. In addition, they ca n increase their ability to prove institutional effectiveness, meet accreditation standards, track quality - enhancement plans, and fulfill grant requirements. COURSE CREATION, SET - UP, AND ASSIGNMENTS If you have used a Pearson digital product in the past, such as MyPsychLab, you can use your same Pearson account info to sign in to Revel. If you do not have a Pearson account, click Educator in the Get Started box, and click “I would like to request access”. After sign in, you will arrive at Revel’s course homepage. Select Search for Materials in the upper right - hand corner and enter the title, author, ISBN, or keyword of the text you’ll be using. When you find your text, click Create Course . Fill in your cour se information, and click Save . The first time you log in to Revel as an instructor, you will be prompted to “start creating assignments.” Click Get Started . You are now ready to: • select textbook content, interactive media, and graded assignments; • set du e dates to make sure students know what Revel reading and assessments are due and when; • publish assignments to push content and assignments to students. BUILDING AN ASSESSMENT PLAN Revel includes various quiz types to use for both formative and summativ e assessments. To get started, simply assign each Revel module you intend to cover in your course. Be sure to consider your assignment due dates. If your goal is for students to come to class more prepared, then be sure to make assignments due before those topics are covered in class. Additionally, think about how you will measure success in this Revel course. What are the quantifiable goals you want to achieve? Pertinent metrics might include one or both of the following: • an analysis of student engagemen t using Revel’s built - in reporting features;
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• a comparison of in - class exam scores, final course grades, or retention rates with those of previous semesters. DASHBOARD AND ANALYTICS Because students tend to skip optional assignments, it is critical that Revel contributes to the overall course grade. The recommendation of experienced educators is that Revel should represent at least 10 percent to 20 percent of the total course grade. Remember: When you assign a chapter or section in Revel, you are assignin g reading, interactives, videos, and assessments. All you need to do is pick the chapters and topics you want to cover, and then assign them to your students on the Revel assignment calendar. The Performance Dashboard allows you to export the student grade s and provides total points earned for easy manual adjustments to external gradebooks. Instructional design research suggests that certain habits of mind and dispositions are associated with critical thinking skills. Writing can be used as a tool to foste r critical thinking. To get students to move toward adopting these habits and dispositions, instruction and assessment should be appropriately complex and focused on supporting, eliciting, and assessing skills such as evaluation, analysis, synthesis, colla boration, and critical reflection. (Cope, Kalantzis, McCarthey, Vojak & Kline, 2011; Liu, Frankel, & Roohr, 2014). As a reminder, all Revel product information can be found on the Pearson Revel site: www.pearson .com/revel LMS INTEGRATION Pearson provides Blackboard Learn integration, giving institutions, instructors, and students easy access to Revel. Pearson’s Revel integration delivers streamlined access to everything your students need for the course in the Blackboard Learn environment. SINGLE SIGN - ON With a single sign - on, students are ready on their first day of class. From your Blackboard course, students have easy access to Revel’s interactive blend of author’s narrative, media, and assessment. GRADE S YNC Flexible, on - demand grade synchronization capabilities allow you to control exactly which Revel grades should be transferred to the Blackboard Gradebook. BEFORE YOU GET STARTED • Ask your campus Blackboard Administrator to enable Revel integration via Blackboard Partner Cloud. • Read our Getting Started Guide for Blackboard Administrators at https://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/educators/lms - integration - services/ . • Check with your Pearson representative to learn if your specific Revel course is available and to get a Pearson account if you need one. With Revel, Pearson authors have been able to reimagine the way students learn content, applying new and engaging lear ning and assessment strategies that were not possible in the past with a print textbook. If you want your students to read, retain what they have read, understand concepts more fully, and develop and apply critical thinking skills, you have one choice: REV EL. Further Reading Cope, B., Kalantzis, M., McCarthey, S., Vojak, C., & Kline, S. (2011). Technology - mediated writing assessments: Principles and processes. Computers and Composition , 28 (2), 79 - 96. Liu, O. L., Frankel, L., & Roohr, K. C. (2014). Assessing critical thinking in higher education: Current state and directions for next ‐ generation assessment. ETS Research Report Series , 2014 (1), 1 - 23. ▲ Return to Main Contents
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GENERAL CLASS ACTIVITIES To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to this Table of Contents, click on click on ▲ Return to General Class Activities List ►GENERAL CLASS ACTIVITIES Activity: Perception s of the Professor Activity: Learning Student Names First Week of Class Discussion Questions Final Project Ideas Assignment: Exploring Psychology through Art Assignment: Psychology and the Media ▲ Return to Main Contents Activity: Perceptions of the Professor This activity is both a good "icebreaker" for the first class and an opportunity to generate some data for a discussion of impression formation. A basic principle of impression formation is that we form our opinions of others from very limited information (for example, physical appea rance, tone of voice, age, occupation). In this activity, you'll have the students in your class share their inferences about you. At the start of the first class, enter the classroom and go through the normal routine of stating your name, the course tit le and number, and then go over the syllabus in detail. Immediately after discussing the syllabus, ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper and tell them that you are going to ask a series of questions about yourself in order to help them get to kn ow you. Explain that it is their task to write down their best guess about what the answers are, and assure them that you will later give them all the "correct" answers. Then, proceed to ask them several questions that relate to concrete behaviors or cha racteristics or even about more abstract aspects of your personality. Although the questions may vary from class to class (and may depend on what you are comfortable revealing), potential questions include: How old do you think I am? Am I married? What k ind of music do I like? What kind of car do I drive? What are some of my favorite TV shows? What are my hobbies or favorite leisure time activities? Do I like sports? Do I play any musical instruments? Am I liberal or conservative? Am I a Mac user or a PC fan? Am I a vegetarian? Am I an "outdoorsy" kind of person? Did I go to a large university or a small liberal arts college? You can also give them the opportunity to ask additional questions (with the caveat that you can decline to answer a particul ar question for personal reasons). Instead of collecting their answers, go through the questionnaire by first asking them to share their answers and then giving them the correct answer. You can then use their answers to discuss impression formation and i ntroduce them to social psychology as a field of study. This exercise, besides being fun for all involved, tends to be effective in "relaxing" the students and encouraging classroom discussion from the outset of the course. Lashley (1987) proposed a simi lar exercise to the one described above using a personality inventory that is designed to assess the class's perceptions of the professor and illustrate aspects of person perception. Lashley, R. L. (1987). Using students' perceptions of their instructor to illustrate principles of person perception. Teaching of Psychology, 14 , 179 - 180. ▲ Return to General Class Activities List ▲ Return to Main Contents Activity: Learning Student Names Often both teachers and students wish to know each other’s names for facilitation of classroom learning and activity. Smith (1985) provides a nice exercise in creating mnemonics for students’ names, as well as getting students to begin thinking about research methodology. This exercise works well during the first week of class and provides a powerful demonstration of the effectiveness of mnemonics. This works best with a class size between 20 and 40.
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Start off by taking attendance, then ask students "Do you think you can remember everyone's name in here…first AND last names?" Usually, the response is "no way." Then briefly discuss the importance of remembering names in a social context. Next ask the students to define a mnemonic and provide examples. Students typically describe the First Letter technique for remember the musical scale, "Every Good Boy Does Fine," or "HOMES" for the Great Lakes. Then clarify the def inition of mnemonic as a mental device that aids memory that can include visua l and/or auditory information. Upon meeting someone for the first time, we tend to rely on visual appearance when making a first impression. Visual cues may help in the formati on of an image - based mnemonic. Upon hearing someone's name, you might note its acoustic properties and begin thinking of similar - sounding information, such as rhymes. Tell students that they will work in small groups and generate Name Mnemonics for every person in their group. Give them an example using your own name. Instructions: Divide students into small groups and create Name Mnemonics for each person in the group, first AND last names. (You might do this by having students "count - off" to avoid f riends sitting together in class.) Emphasize that each person is to ONLY REMEMBER her or his OWN Name Mnemonic. Emphasize that "anything goes" and the more bizarre and creative, the better. When they are finished, have students return to their seats, and arrange chairs (if possible) into a circle. Next, inform students that they will have to present their name and mnemonic to the class, so they should do their best to try and remember the names because 3 people will be chosen to recall all of the names. Ea ch student should then, individually, go to the chalkboard, WRITE their name, SAY their mnemonic, ERASE their name, and sit down. Ask for volunteers (so as not to really put anyone on the spot) to recall all of the names. Usually, students get between 85 - 100% of the names correct! It is quite a feat of memory. After about 2 - 3 volunteers, you should try to name everyone (usually you’ll be pressured to do this by students anyway). Ask them again, "Do you think you could have named everyone in here without the mnemonics?" Usually, the class states a resounding "NO." This leads to a discussion about testable hypotheses, and one may choose to further the discussion during a different class period on Research Methods. Highlights of a research methods empha sis include confounding variables (e.g., knowing others in the class beforehand, practice effects during recall) and experimental design (e.g., testing the hypothesis of use of mnemonics vs. no mnemonics). Smith, S. M. (1985). A method for teaching name m nemonics. Teaching of Psychology, 12, 156 - 158. ▲ Return to General Class Activities List ▲ Return to Main Contents First Week of Class Discussion Questions 1. What do students hope to get from your class? “Why are you here, today, in this course? What can you learn about p sychology?” This is a great way to start class. It gets students involved in issues and ideas that interest them and can illustrate the br eadth of the course content. 2. What role does the scientific method play in contemporary psychology? What are the limitations of the scientific method, and are there any better alternatives available? Students are often skeptical of the scientific method a nd are eager to point out its flaws, such as the slow incremental progress it generates, its reliance on measurable phenomena, its susceptibility to experimenter biases, and its sterile methodology. Students often fail to realize, however, that the scienti fic method is the best tool we have to generate valid, reliable knowledge and that it has provided us with a wealth of discoveries.
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3. What psychological principles do you see at work in your day - to - day life? Psychological principles permeate advertising, ma rketing, television, movies, sales, self - help books, fashion, politics, and folk wisdom, to name a few, but students are often unaware of this influence. Pointing out this influence is a good way to keep your students’ interest. For example, the concept of “psychological stress,” so prevalent in our culture, was rarely mentioned fifty years ago. 4. Ask your students how many of them believe in determinism. Then ask them how many of them believe in free will. Insist that they cannot have it both ways. You w ill be surprised to find that many, if not most, students believe in free will. This is a terrific discussion starter, because it conflicts with one of the fundamental assumptions of science and psychology, determinism. You might ask your students what s cience can hope to reveal if the world is not determined. You might also suggest that what feels like free will to us may be thinly disguised determinism. This simple discussion is often enough to change the manner in which students view themselves and t he manner in which they view those around them. 5. How would a student establish an appropriate study plan? Have students consider factors related to their own study habits and see if they can develop a realistic time management (study) plan. ▲ Return to General Class Activities List ▲ Return to Main Contents Final Project Ideas Many introductory courses involve a writing component, typically taking the form of “pick a t opic of interest to you that we’ve discussed and write a 10 - page research paper on it.” As an alternative to that kind of substantial integrative exercise, you might consider the following assignments . They are highly recommended for the greater student involvement and active learning they engender, and for their ability to help students synthesize material across the entire breadth of the course. The Game Project Many instructors have adopted "The Gam e Project" instead of a major paper, and the response has been overwhelmingly positive . Working in groups of 3, students are asked to create an original game incorporating their favorite psychological concepts . The key requirement is that their game — which can be entirely unique or modeled after an existing game (e.g., Trivial Pursuit, Monopoly) — should be designed so that advancement or success in the game is dependent on knowledge of psychological concepts covered in the course . Students are asked to design the game for 2, 3, or 4 players, and so that it takes approximately 20 - 30 minutes to play . Their games must also include clear, step - by - step instructions as well as all props needed to play (e.g., dice, cards, board, scoring sheets, and so on ) . Students t urn in their games on the second - to - last day of class, and on the last day of class they have a pizza party/game day in which students get an opportunity to play one another's games. Students have report ed that they enjoy the opportunity to review the mat erial (without the pressure of a research paper) twice: Once while creating their own game, and once while playing other students' games . Overall, they felt that the project was challenging and worthwhile, and they really enjoyed the opportunity to be crea tive in their final projects . The creativity and ingenuity students typically display is always impressive; past semesters have seen a 7 - foot putting green, Plexiglas pyramids, flaming tiki torches, and board games elaborate enough to be marketed as is! An added benefit is that many of the games can be used in future classes as a fun review for students before exams. Some criteria for grading the project: Consider the breadth or depth of material covered . Students are free to cover a broad range of informa tion from across the course, or to focus on a more defined set of principles (“Skinner Boxing,” based on operant principles and played in a makeshift boxing ring, was a wild success!) . Regardless of the approach, reward mastery of the material . If breadth is emphasized, look for equal coverage of information . If depth is used, grade on the cohesiveness of the concepts or how they fit together as a logical unit . Effort and creativity should also be highly rewarded; a game that starts from scratch is more imp ressive than one that simply covers up a Monopoly board with psychology questions . Finally, presentation counts; neatness, quality of design, and visual impact should be judged . Ask students to submit a proposal several weeks before “game day” so you can j udge the feasibility of the project and offer suggestions early on.
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Media Portfolio Elizabeth Rider (1992) describes a simple but worthwhile project that helps students to develop a scholarly understanding of course material and also to see the real - world relevance of psychological principles outside of the classroom . For this project, ask students to develop a “media portfolio” of newspaper and magazine clippings that illustrate psychological concepts. Encourage them to include samples from a wi de variety of sources, including newspapers, magazines, editorials, advice and medical columns, cartoons, etc . Rider suggests that students collect at least 15 clippings distributed across each major unit of the course, and that they should annotate each c lipping by providing its source and explaining how it relates to a particular psychological concept, theory, or research finding from the text or lecture . (After you have done this project once or twice, you can show students good examples of port folios fr om previous classes.) Portfolios can be collected at the end of the semester and evaluated on four major dimensions: 1. relevance of the clippings to the course material 2. accuracy of students’ descriptions 3. breadth of coverage (i.e., across the range of cours e topics) 4. originality (i.e., ability to make clever or nonobvious connections between clippings and concepts) Additional benefits suggested by Rider are that the portfolios are easy to grade, they can be used in large classes, they promote high student interest, and perhaps most importantly, they stimulate students to continue to relate psychology to current events even after the course ends. Rider, E. A. (1992) . Understanding and applying psychology through the use of news clippings . Teaching of Psycho logy , 19 , 161 - 162. Writing a Psychology Booklet Another creative alternative to a final project is to have students work in groups to create a short psychology booklet for an early - high school audience . For this project, adapted from an exercise suggeste d by Douglas Vipond, assign your students near the end of the semester to write a booklet about psychology for a 9th grade class . If possible, select an actual 9th grade class from a nearby high school and, with the help of the teacher, solicit letters fro m the young students introducing themselves and explaining what they generally know about psychology . Specifically, the young students should include their definition of psychology, their thoughts about what psychologists are like, what they know about top ics such as learning, memory, and psychological disorders, and what psychological topics they would like to know more about . These letters serve two important purposes . First, they provide your students with a good starting point for ideas for topics to co ver in their booklets (e.g., your students may want to correct misperceptions that learning is all about listening to the teacher and studying for tests, or that memory is something that a person has or doesn't have) . Second, and more importantly, they usually illustrate a large gap in the beliefs between psychology students , who have begun to see psychology as a scientific enterprise , and younger students , who typically regard psychology as a helping profession (e.g., “It's all about crazy people in ins titutions”) . This gap should sufficiently motivate your students to show others how interesting, multifaceted, and useful psychology can be. Depending on your class size, divide students into small groups of about 3 to 5 and explain that each group is res ponsible for producing a short booklet . Stress that each booklet should cover approximately 10 to 15 topics, and that students in the group should distribute the work fairly and equitably . The choice of topics to cover is strictly up to the students, but t hey should keep two guiding principles in mind: (1) topics should be explained very clearly and should accurately represent psychology, and (2) they should be perceived as interesting and useful to a 9th - grade audience . Students should also be encouraged t o use their imagination and to represent various topics with poems, puzzles, cartoons, or games in addition to brief summaries (in order to avoid producing a "boring" textbook), and that they should feel free to use humor in their presentations . Once group s have completed the final version of their booklet, evaluate the projects by assigning a group grade that reflects the overall quality of the booklet and individual grades that reflect the quality of the entries contributed by students individually . Befor e passing booklets on to your 9th - grade audience, share them with your students, who will no doubt be thrilled to see their colleagues' work. According to Vipond, both the younger readers and the psychology students are pleased with the final product . The psychology students gain, in addition to a sense of pride and accomplishment, a more thorough understanding of psychological concepts through their struggle to explain it in a clear and interesting way to younger students . (Note: In a more involved versio n of this project suggested by Vipond, the target class is an English composition class
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whose members edit and suggest comments on a draft of your students' booklets before submitting the final version.) Vipond, S. (1993) . Social motives for writing psych ology: Writing for and with younger readers . Teaching of Psychology, 20 , 89 - 93. Poster Session “A 10 - page research paper” can sound rather ominous to a lower - division student . As a less - threatening alternative, although one that is equally intensive and equally informative, consider arranging a poster session modeled after those at professional conferences. Working in teams (assembled to reflect the size and characteristics of your particular class) students should choose a topic of interest to them and which they would like to investigate further . Stress to the students that they should develop a presentation that integrates and organizes a substantial area of research . The form of the presentation, however, is to be more visual than verbal: Students wi ll develop posters that their classmates can peruse and ask questions about . Although most students seem to grasp the fundamentals of this task, you might facilitate matters by presenting examples of posters you’ve assembled for conventions , yourself ; thes e could be put on library reserve, used during a class period, or you could use class time to allow students to see examples and work on their own projects. Assign this project early in the semester to give students time to find other group members, resea rch their topic, and develop their presentation . A proposal for the project and checks on its progress would be in order . This will allow you to redirect students whose projects might be too similar to one another . Tell students that on the day of the poster session itself, they will be expected to wander throughout the room and ask intelligent questions of the presenters . Emphasize that one team member should remain near his or her poster to answer questions the other participants might have . Besides g rading on the quality, effort, and originality of the presentation, you might consider adding a component reflecting other students’ opinions of the posters . For example, you could develop a rating sheet on which viewers anonymously rate the knowledg e abili ty or informativeness of presenters. Poster sessions have the advantage of being more dynamic and engaging than research papers, although they meet the same criteria: Students must perform substantial research beyond the information presented in text or l ectures; there must be evidence of critical thinking, synthesis, and analysis of the subject matter; there must be clear communication of information and ideas. Baird, B. N. (1991). In - class poster sessions. Teaching of Psychology , 18 , 27 - 29. Psychology Science Fair Closely related to the poster session is the science fair . As with the poster session, students have the opportunity to explore in depth any topic of interest to them as long as it is psychologically relevant . In contrast to the poster sessio n, however, students are instructed that their project must involve the active participation of science fair visitors (i.e., rather than relying on a visual presentation of facts) . For maximum participation and interest, the science fair should be open to the public . Invite other faculty members, students from other psychology or science courses, and perhaps students from a nearby high school who are interested in psychology . Fish and Fraser, who have conducted successful science fairs in the past, report a variety of interesting projects . Students have, for example, created or built their own perceptual illusions, mazes, or simulated tachistoscopes ; one student demonstrated a biofeedback machine ; still another gave visitors the experience of being wheelchai r bound . According to Fish and Fraser, among the many benefits of the science fair project is that students not only report a better understanding of psychological principles and their application but they also report exerting more effort and learning more from their textbook and instructor . In addition, this activity promotes cooperation and discourse among students and between students and instructors, and also provides an interesting educational experience for science fair visitors. Fish, T. A., & Frase r, I. H. (1993) . The science fair: A supplement to the lecture technique . Teaching of Psychology, 20 , 231 - 233. ▲ Return to General Class Activities List ▲ Return to Main Contents
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Assignment: Exploring Psychology through Art Maureen Pierce suggests a unique ice - breaking assignment that encourages students to explore their ideas about psychology through the creation of a piece of artwork. After you have discussed the definition of psychology during the first or second class session, ask your students to create a piece of art that expresses and reflects their own ideas about the definition of psychology, some topic in the field of psychology, or something they hope to learn in the c ourse. Tell your students that as long as the object reflects a psychological theme, the choice of materials and media is up to them. They should also include a short (1 – 2 page) summary statement that describes how the art reflects their understanding or d efinition of psychology. They should explain how and why they chose the media and materials used as well as how their creation specifically expresses their unique interpretation of psychology. Pierce reports that students are typically very creative in usi ng a wide variety of media (including fabrics, modeling clay, and paints) to create sculptures, mobiles, and collages. She also notes that , in addition to the fact that students are enthusiastic about the assignment, they also appreciate an opportunity to think critically, to explore the textbook, and to carefully consider their ideas about psychology at an early stage in the course. Pierce, M. C., & Davis, S. F. (1995). Exploring psychology through the visual realm. Paper presented at the 103rd annual me eting of the American Psychological Association, New York, August. ▲ Return to General Class Activities List ▲ Return to Main Contents Assignment: Psychology and the Media Do the media present a distorted image of psychology? The answer to this question is explored in a good first - week assignment suggested by Lester Sdorow (1994). Instruct your students to spend a week or two observing and noting any coverage of psychology i n the media (including radio and television, newspapers and magazines, and motion pictures). Place a copy of Ludy Benjamin's (1986) article on this topic on reserve in the library, and ask students to write a short (2 – 3 page) paper discussing the “popular” image of psychology from the perspective of their own observations as well as from those noted by Benjamin. Sdorow suggests that students' papers address the following questions: (a) Do the media present psychology more as a science or more as a form of common sense? (b) Do the media present the diverse fields of psychology or only a few? (If only a few, which are overrepresented and which are underrepresented?) (c) Do the media rely more on psychologists or self - proclaimed experts for information? (d) Do the media present psychological information more in a sober manner or in a sensationalistic manner? Benjamin, L. T. (1986). Why don't they understand us? A history of psychology's public image . American Psychologist , 43 , 87 – 94. Sdorow, L. (1994). The Frankenstein course: Teaching assistants, laboratory exercises, and papers in introductory psychology. Paper presented at the Southwest Regional Conference for Teachers of Psychology, Fort Worth. ▲ Return to General Class Activities List ▲ Return to Main Contents
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Alan Swinkels has enjoyed a long association with Pearson Education. For more than 25 years he’s authored ancillaries associated with leading textbooks in general, social, developmental, and abnormal psychology, and authored or edited almost every kind of material: Instructor’s manuals, Internet content, video collections, test item file s, audible study guides, PowerPoint collections, and even transparency masters. Swinkels received his PhD in social psychology from the University of Texas at Austin. He has taught at UT, Loyola Marymount University, and UCLA, and he spent a semester as a Visiting Scholar at Harvard University. He is currently professor and chair of the psychology department at St. Edward’s University in Austin, Texas, where he has received several awards for teaching, research, and advising. In 2010 , he was named the Texas Professor of the Year by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and the Council for Advancement and Support of Education. ▲ Return to Main Contents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I greatly appreciate the comments and suggestions offered by many colleagues for lecture ideas, classroom activities, and student projects. A wealth of information awaits you at the National Institute on the Teaching of Psychology (NITOP, held in St. Peter sburg, Florida), as well as special teaching sessions at the annual meetings of the American Psychological Association and the Association for Psychological Science. The editorial staff at Pearson Education and Editors, Inc., proved once again to be capabl e, competent, and charming: thanks go especially to Diana Murphy, Amber Mackey, Gina Linko, and Lisa Mafrici for their help with this and other projects. Flaco Jimenez provided 11th - hour support. Grunt work was graciously loaned by SV Productions . Casey, r emember that señors rule. Alan Swinkels St. Edward’s University 3001 South Congress Avenue Austin, TX 78704 ▲ Return to Main Contents
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1 T he science of psychology 1 ▲TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on ▲Return to Table of Contents To retu rn to a section of the Lecture Guide, click on ► Return to Lecture Guide ►LECTURE GUIDE The History of Psychology (p. 3 ) The Field of P sychology Today (p. 4 ) Scientific Research (p. 5 ) Ethics of Psychological Research (p. 6 ) Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking (p. 7 ) Chapter Summary (p. 7 ) ►FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES Chapter - At - A - Glance (p. 2 ) Lecture Guide (p. 3 ) Learning Objectives (p. 8 ) Rapid Review (p . 9 ) Changes from the Third Edition to the Fourth Edition (p. 1 0 ) Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 1 1 ) Classroom A ctivities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 3 3 ) Handout Masters (p. 45 ) Revel Multimedia (p. 57 ) MyPsychLab Multimedia (p. 58 ) Practice Quiz and Test Yourself Answer Keys (p. 59 )
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 2 ▼ CHAPTER - AT - A - GLANCE Detailed Outline Instructor Resources Revel Multimedia The History of Psychology Wundt , Titchener, and James Gestalt , Psychoanalysis , and Behavior ism Learning Objectives: 1.1, 1.2 Lecture Launchers: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9 Activities & Exercises: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 Handouts: 1.1, 1.2 Video : Why Study Psychology? Survey : What Do You Know About Psychology? Interactive : Timeline of the History of Psychology The Field of Psychology Today Modern Perspective s Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization Learning Objectives: 1.3, 1.4 Lecture Launchers: 1.10, 1.11, 1.12 Activities & Exercises: 1.6, 1.7, 1.8 Writing Assig nment: 1.1 Video : Diverse Perspectives Video : Careers in Psychology Interactive : Work Settings and Subfields of Psychology Scientific Research The Scientific Approach Descriptive Methods Correlations: Finding Relationships The Experiment Experimental Ha zards and Controlling for Effects Learning Objectives: 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9 Lecture Launchers: 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19 Activities & Exercises: 1.9, 1.10, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18 Handouts: 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 Writin g Assignment: 1.2 Video : Research Methods Video : Experiments – Independent vs. Dependent Variables Video : Experiments – Experimental Group vs. Control Group Survey : Participating in a Research Survey Interactive : Scatterplots Interactive : A Sample Experi ment Ethics of Psychological Research The Guidelines for Doing Research with People Animal Research Learning Objectives: 1.10, 1.11 Lecture Launchers: 1.20, 1.21 Video : The Ethics of Psychological Research with People Apply ing Psychology to Everyday L ife: Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking Learning Objectives: 1.12 Lecture Launchers: 1.22 Video : Critical Thinking ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 3 ▼ Lecture Guide I . THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY Lecture Launche rs and Discussion Topics 1.1 - How Do We Know What We Know? 1.2 - Psychology and Common Sense 1.3 - African Americans in the History of Psycholog y in America 1.4 - Women in the History of Psychology in America 1.5 - Biographical Profiles 1.6 - Scandal in Psychology — John B. Watson ’ s F all from Grace 1.7 - The Study of Bumps on the Head 1. 8 - Wundt’s Other Method 1.9 - Dates in the Development of Psychoanalysis Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises 1.1 - Misconceptions About Psychology 1.2 - Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking 1.3 - Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect 1.4 - A Jigsaw Approach to Learning the Early History of Psychology 1.5 - Which Famo us Psychologist Am I? REVEL Multimedia MyPsychLab Multimedia Learning Objective 1.1 - Describe the contributions of some of the early pioneers in psychology. A. The history o f psychology 1. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes a. A “hub science” in many meaningful ways B . In the beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James 1. In 1879, psychology began as a science of its own in Germany a. Wu ndt developed the method of objective introspection 2. T itchener and structuralism in A merica a . Edward Titchener brought psychology in the form of structuralism to America b. Margaret F. Washburn was the first woman to receive a PhD in psychology in 1894 3. William James and f unctionalism a . St ress es the way the mind allows us to adapt i. Mary Whiton Calkins ii. Several women and minorities contributed to the early days of psychology b . Functionalism influenced educational, evolutio nary, and industrial psychology Learning Objective 1.2 - Summarize the basic ideas and the important people behind the early approaches known as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behaviorism. C . Three influential approaches 1. Gestalt psychology: The whol e is greater than the sum of its parts a. W ertheimer and others studied sensation and perception b. Called their new perspective Gestalt (organized whole) psychology 2. Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis a . The unconscious mind controls mu ch of our conscious behavior b. Childhood events are important in influencing later behavior c. Adler, Jung, Horney, and Anna Freud were adherents to one degree or another 3 . Pavlov, Watson, and the dawn of b ehaviorism a . Watson proposed a science of behavior called behaviorism, which focused only on the study of observable stimuli and responses
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 4 b . Watson and Rayner demonstrated that a phobia could be learned by conditioning c . Jones later demonstrated that learned phobias could be counterc onditioned ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents II . THE FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY TODAY Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics 1.10 - Psychology in the Framework of Emerging Transdiscip l inary Science 1 .11 - Over the Edge 1.12 – Clinical, Psychiatric, and Other Types of Psychological Training Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises 1.6 - Perspectives in Psychology 1 .7 - What Psychologists Know 1.8 - Thinking About Your Interests in Psychology REVEL Multimedia MyPsychLab Multimedia Learning Objective 1.3 - Summarize the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives in psychology. A. Modern perspectives 1 . Psychodynamic perspective a . Change of emphasis from Freud’s original ideas 2 . Behavioral perspective a . Operant condition ing became a major force in the twentieth century b . Skinner introduced the concept of reinforcement to behaviorism 3 . Humanistic perspective a . Free will and the human potential for growth are emphasized b . Developed as a reaction to behavioris m and psychoanalysis 4 . Cognitive perspective a . Study of learning, memory, language, and problem solving b . Includes the field of cognitive neuroscience 5 . Sociocultural perspective a . Combines two areas of study: social psy chology and cultur al psychology 6 . Biopsychological perspective a . B iological bases of behavior, such as hormones, heredity, neurotransmitters 7 . Evolutionary perspective a . Behavior is seen as havin g an adaptive or survival value b. Applications to mating and reproduction are a primary focus Learning Objective 1.4 - Differentiate between the various types of professionals within the field of psychology. B. Psychological professionals and areas of specialization 1. Psychologists have academic degrees and can counsel, teach, or research 2. Psychologists may specialize in any one of a large number of areas within psychology 3. Psychiatrists are medical doctors who provide diagnosis and therapy 4. Psychiatric social workers have special training in the influences of the environment on mental illness C. Psychologists engage in research, teaching, and application 1. Basic research: Adding information to scientific knowledge
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 5 2. Applied research: Practical solutions to actual problems 3. Psychologi sts investigate a broad range of topics a. Social, personality, cognitive, health, sport, industrial, clinical, developmental, etc. ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents III . SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics 1.13 - Case S tudies of Vietnam W ar E xperiences 1.14 - Online Polls 1.15 - Correlation and Causality 1.16 - Damned Lies, Damned Statisticians 1.17 - Basic Research versus Applied Research 1.18 - Size Matters 1.19 - The (T obacco) Road from Hypothesis to Conclusion Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises 1.9 - Inference or Observation? 1.10 - Contradictory Beliefs 1.11 - Name That Research Method 1.12 - Making Statistics Relevant 1.13 - Observational Research in the Dining Hall 1.14 - Understanding Co rrelations 1.15 - Correlating Shoe Size and Height 1.16 - Wonder Horse Dials 911 To Save Boy’s Life 1.17 - Softens Hands While You Do Dishes 1.18 - Testing Random Assignment REVEL Multimedia MyPsychLab Multimedia Learning Objective 1.5 - Recall the five steps of the scientific approach. A. The scientific approach 1. Ps ychology’s goals a. Description : What is happening? b. Explanation : Why is it happening? c. Prediction : When will it happen again? d. Control : How can it be changed? 2. Steps in the scientific approach a . P erceiving the question b. F o rming a hypothesis c. T esting the hypothesis d. D rawing conclusions e. Reporting the results i. Replication, falsifiability, transparency, reliability, etc., all apply Learning Objective 1.6 - Compare and contrast some of the methods used to describe behavior. B. Descriptive methods 1. Naturalistic observation involves watching animals or people in natural environments a. Advantages are realism and insights gained through participant observation b . Disadvantage s are a lack of control and possible observer bias 2 . Laboratory observation involve s watching animals or people in an artificial but controlled situation, such as a laboratory
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 6 3 . Case studies are detailed investigations of one subject a. Information gained from case studies may not be applied to other cases 4 . Surveys involve asking standardized questions of large groups of people a. Respondents may not always tell the truth or remember information correctly b. Representativeness and sampling issues in general are a consideration Learning Objective 1.7 - Explain how researchers use the correlational technique to study relationships between two or more variables. C. Correlations: Finding relationships 1. A llows researchers to discover and predict relationships between variables a. Positive correlations exist when increases in one variable are matched by increases in the other variable b. Negative correlations exist when increases in one variable are matched by decreases in the other variable 2. Correlations cannot be used to prove cause - and - effect relationships Learning Objective 1.8 - Identify the steps involved in designing an experiment. D. The experiment 1. Tightly controlled manipulations of variables that allow researchers to dete rmine cause - and - effect relationships a. Independent and dependent variables b. Control and experimental groups c. Random assignment d. Operational definitions Learning Objective 1. 9 - Recall two common sources of problems in an experiment and some ways to control for these effects. E. E xperimental hazards and controlling for effects 1. Placebo effects and experimenter effects 2. Importance of single - and double - blind designs ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table o f Contents I V . ETHICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics 1.20 - Using Animals in Psychological Research 1.21 - A n Historical Persp ective on Research Ethics REVEL Multimedia MyPsychLab Multimedia Learning Objective 1.10 - Identify some of the common ethical guidelines for doing research with people. A. Gu idelines for conducting research with people 1. Protection of rights and well - being of participants 2. Informed consent 3. Justification when deception is used 4. The right of participants to withdraw at any time
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 7 5. Protection of participants fro m risks 6 . Debriefing of participants at the conclusion of the study 7 . Confidentiality 8. Remediation of ill effects Learning Objective 1.11 - Explain why psychologists sometimes use animals in their research. B. Animals in psychological researc h make useful models because they are easier to control than humans, have simpler behavior, and can be studied in ways that are not permissible with humans ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents V. APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVE RYDAY LIFE: THINKING CRITICALLY ABO UT CRITICAL THINKING Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics 1.22 - The Characteristics of Good Reasoners REVEL Multimedia MyPsychLab Multimedia Learning Objective 1.12 - Recall the basic criteria for critical thinking that people can use in their everyday lives. A. Criteria for critical thinking 1. Critical thinking i s the ability to make reasoned judgments 2. Four basic criteria: a. There are few concepts that do not need to be tested b. Evidence can vary in quality c. Claims by experts and authorities do not automatically make something true d. Keeping an open mind is important ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents VI. CHAPTER SUMMARY Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises 1.19 - Crossword Puzzle 1.20 - Fill - in - the - Blanks ▲ Return to Chap ter 1: Table of Contents
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 8 ▼ LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1.1 Describe the contributions of some of the early pioneers in psychology. 1.2 Summarize the basic ideas and the important people behind the early approaches known as Gestalt, psychoanalysis, and behavior ism. 1.3 Summarize the basic ideas behind the seven modern perspectives in psychology. 1.4 Differentiate between the various types of professionals within the field of psychology. 1.5 Recall the five steps of the scientific approach. 1.6 Compare and co ntrast some of the methods used to describe behavior. 1.7 Explain how researchers use the correlational technique to study relationships between two or more variables. 1.8 Identify the steps involved in designing an experiment. 1.9 Recall two common sou rces of problems in an experiment and some ways to control for these effects. 1.10 Identify some of the common ethical guidelines for doing research with people. 1.11 Explain why psychologists sometimes use animals in their research. 1.12 Recall the bas ic criteria for critical thinking that people can use in their everyday lives. ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 9 ▼ RAPID REVIEW Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Germany in 1879, using the method of objective introspection in an attempt to study human thought processes. Edward Titchener, a student of Wundt, expanded Wundt’s ideas and brought the method of introspection to the United States, calling his approach structuralism . William James was focused on discovering how our mental processes help us to function in our daily lives and began to promote his viewpoint known as functionalism . Gestalt psychologists were studying how sensation and perception create a pattern that is greater than the sum of the individual components. Sigmun d Freud developed his theory of psychoanalysis, assigning a primary role to the unconscious. John Watson expanded the findings of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov to promote the perspective of behaviorism . Today seven major perspectives make up the field o f psychology: psychodynamic , behavioral , humanistic , biopsychological, cognitive , sociocultural , and evolutionary . The field of psychology offers a range of professional opportunities, many based on direct practice. For example, psychiatrists , psychoanalys ts, and psychiatric social workers provide varying forms of mental health care with varying specializations and training. Psychologists might also perform clinical work, but can specialize in many other areas and work in many different settings. Psycholog ists, like all scientists, use the scientific method . The goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict, and control the behaviors and mental process of both humans and animals. Specific research techniques include naturalistic observation , partici pant observation , case studies , s urveys , and strategies that take a correlational approach. In an experiment , the researcher manipulates an independent variable and measures some response from the participants on the dependent variable . In order to accompl ish this, the researcher usually observes two groups: an experimental group and a control group . The researcher will most likely use random assignment to determine which participants will go into which group. Often, the control group receives a bogus treat ment in order to control for the placebo effect . Normally, the participants are not told which group they are in ( single - blind study ). In order to control for any expectations the experimenter might have (the experimenter effect ) , the study might be design ed so that neither the participants nor the experimenter know who is in which group ( double - blind study ). Relying on the scientific method can help foster a more general attitude of critical thinking . ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 10 ▼ CHANGES FROM THE THIRD EDITION TO THE FOURTH EDITION Chapter 1 - The Science of Psychology T opics have been reorganized and L earning O bjectives have been updated The c hapter now begins with History of Psycholo gy T he discussion of Goals of Psychology has been moved to later in the chapter The Issues in Psychology feature has been deleted S ection head ing s have been reworded to a more compact form V ideos, photos, figures , and tables have been updated APA Learning Objective 2 feature ( A Sample Experiment ) has been added A n ew video on critical thinking accompanies the Applying Psychology feature New research has been incorporated on psychology as a “hub science” C overage of some early minority pioneers in psycholog y has been moved into the narrative , and material on APA’s Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs website has been added A n ew example of the sociocultural perspective ( examinin g the bystander effect in India) has been incorporated Information on the biopsychol ogical perspective and schizophrenia has been updated R esearch in the evolutionary psychology section has been updated Material on work settings and subfields of psychology has been u pdated A revision of terminology to focus on the “scientific approach” (v s. scientific method) and “operationalization” (vs. operational definition) has been incorporated, and the key term “theory” has been added An e xpanded discussion of forming a hypothesis ( to include more information on how hypotheses relate to theories ) is present A discussion of the “replicability crisis” has been added M aterial on the challenges involved in finding a representative sample for a study is presented ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 11 ▼ LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS 1.1 - How Do We Know What We Know? 1.2 - Psychology and Common Sense 1.3 - African Am ericans in the History of Psycholog y in America 1.4 - Women in the History of Psychology in America 1.5 - Biographical Profiles 1.6 - Scandal in Psychology — John Watson ’ s F all from Grace 1.7 - The Study of Bumps on the Head 1.8 - Wundt’s Other Method 1.9 - Dates in the Development of Psychoanalysis 1.10 - Psychology in the Fra mework of Emerging Transdisciplinary Science 1.11 - Over the Edge 1.12 - Clinic a l , Psychiatric , and Other Types of Psychological Training 1.13 - Case Studies of Vietnam War Experiences 1.14 - Online Polls 1.15 - Correlation and Causality 1.16 - Damned Lies, Damned Statisticians 1.17 - Basic Research versus Applied Research 1.18 - Size Matters 1.19 - The (Tobacco) Road From Hypothesis to Conclusion 1.20 - Using Animals in Psychological Research 1.21 - An Hi storical Perspective on Research Ethics 1.22 - The Characteristics of Good Reasoners ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents Lecture Launcher 1.1 - How Do We Know What We Know? Dependence on observation is one of the hallmarks of science, but it is not the only way humans acquire knowledge. There are, in fact, many questions that canno t be answered by scientific methods and for which other means of acquiring knowledge are more appropriate. Begin your discussion by asking students the following questions: How do you know that George Washington was the first president of the United State s? How do you know that you really have a stomach? What makes you so sure the sun will rise tomorrow? How do you know the color of the shirt I’m wearing? How can you be sure that there aren’t little creatures inside computers that are responsible for the t hings computers do? Are you sure you don’t have a big hole in the back of your pants or skirt? Authority is one source of knowledge. We know, or believe, that Washington was the first president because we trust the authority of historians and history book s. During the centuries that Western civilization was dominated by the Church, the authority of holy writings was believed to be the only dependable way of knowing. Reason was considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge . If you say, “All humans have stomachs; I am human; therefore, I have a stomach,” you have used deductive reasoning. If you say, “The sun rose today, yesterday, the day before yesterday, and for as long as I or anyone can remember,” you are using inductiv e reasoning.
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 12 Observation is yet another way of acquiring knowledge. You know the color of my shirt because you can see the shirt. You assume that you do not have a hole in the posterior of your clothing because you have not observed stares and giggles fr om others. One might use any of these ways of knowing to deny the existence of little creatures in computers. People you perceive to be authorities about computer innards may have told you how they work. You may have reasoned that creatures need nourishm ent and there is no food supply inside microprocessors. Or you may have looked inside a computer and failed to see little creatures waiting to solve your problems. But there is no way one can absolutely refute the computer - creature hypothesis; so if you wa nt to keep your computer running, maybe you should find out what the little creatures eat. All these ways of knowing — authority, reason, and observation — are used by scientists, but observation must be the basis for knowledge that is scientific. Science pu ts greater emphasis on evidence provided by the senses than on authority of others or reasoning. In short, science relies on empirical evidence. ► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1 ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents Lecture Launcher 1. 2 - Psychology and Common Sense A c ommon refrain voiced by laypeople and some scientists is that most, if not all, of behavioral science “is just common sense.” Introductory psychology students are particularly apt to make this claim, given that much of their prior exposure to psychology is likely to have been very commonsensical (though perhaps not well established) claims by a variety of “professionals” on the talk - show circuit. In a nutshell, it’s difficult to counter the “commonsense” stigma when so much of behavior seems to be explainab le at an intuitive surface level. Mark Leary shares some suggestions for discussing this issue with your students. It is true that the subject matter of psychology is much more familiar to most people than is the subject matter of subatomic physics or gas troendocrinological biology; we see behavior all around us but rarely stumble over a gluon. Psychology would be an odd science of thought and behavior if it only considered thoughts and behaviors completely foreign to people’s experiences or if its finding s always ran counter to most people’s beliefs. But neither greater visibility of subject matter nor popular consensus guarantees greater understanding. Many people believed wholeheartedly in flat Earths and cheese moons, only to find their commonsense view s dismantled in the face of scientific evidence. So too with psychology. Although most people would like to believe that large rewards produce greater liking for a boring task, that the behavior of men and women is determined by their biology, or that abse nce makes the heart grow fonder, researchers studying cognitive dissonance, sex - role stereotypes, and close relationships would be happy to share their findings to the contrary. In short, the popularity of a commonsense belief may not always support the we ight of scientific evidence. More importantly, psychologists (like all scientists) are primarily engaged in the task of explaining behavior, rather than merely cataloging it. The difference between theory and description — “why” versus “what” — echoes the dif ference between science and common sense. Common sense certainly helps describe what takes place in behavior but doesn’t compel us to understand why it takes place. The development of theory in understanding behavior sets science apart from everyday common sense accounts. Leary, M. (201 6 ). Behavioral research methods ( 7 th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Pearson. ► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1 ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents Lecture Launcher 1.3 – African Americans in the History of Psychology in America
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 13 Like women, African Americans faced many obstacles to their education and participation in psychology. Most white institutions would not accept African American students, and when they were able to enroll, they often experienced discrimination. In addition, few undergraduate black colleges offered a major in psychology until after the 1940s. Howard University, the only major black university offering graduate study, awarded 32 PhDs to African Americans from 1920 to 1950. During th e same period only eight African Americans earned a PhD from one of the ten most prestigious white universities. Not only was earning the PhD difficult, employment opportunities were scarce for African American psychologists since neither white universitie s nor organizations in the private sector would hire them. Most taught at black colleges where opportunities to engage in research were limited, thus restricting opportunities for professional recognition. The situation for African American students has im proved dramatically in recent years. Kenneth B. Clark, best known for his research on the effects of racial segregation, became the first African American elected as APA president in 1970. Guthrie, R. V. (1976). Even the rat was white: A historical view o f psychology . New York: Harper and Row. Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2016). A history of modern psychology (11 th ed.). Boston: Cengage. ► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1 ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents Lecture Launcher 1. 4 - Women in the History of Psycholo gy in America Psychology has renewed its appreciation of diversity in human behavior. Part of that diversity includes celebrating the accomplishments and contributions of women to the field of psychology. Share with your students the stories of some key f igures from psychology’s history: Mary Whiton Calkins (1863 – 1930) attended Harvard University and worked with William James, but because Harvard did not officially admit women into graduate programs, Calkins never received a PhD from Harvard. At best, Har vard offered her the degree from its sister school Radcliffe. She refused, stating that she ought to be given the degree from the institution where she earned it. Calkins collaborated with Edmund Sanford from neighboring Clark University on a variety of re search projects. At that time, women with advanced degrees or training primarily received faculty positions at female colleges, such as Wellesley and Vassar Colleges. Calkins received a position at Wellesley College in 1887 and established a prolific labor atory in 1891 producing short - term memory research (Madigan & O'Hara, 1992). In 1906, Calkins was the first woman elected president of the APA. Margaret Floy Washburn (1871 – 1939) was the first person, male or female, to receive a PhD from Edward B. Titche ner in 1884, the leading structuralist in American experimental psychology at that time (Goodwin, 1999). She was also the first female to receive a PhD in the United States. Interestingly, Washburn never believed Titchener taught her much, as she became a leading comparative psychologist at Vassar College. She produced her most influential work in The Animal Mind in 1908, and in 1921, she was elected the second woman president of APA. She suffered a cerebral hemorrhage in 1937 and died from its complication s in 1939 (Scarborough & Furumoto, 1987). Christine Ladd - Franklin (1847 – 1930) was a mathematician who developed an interest in visual perception and made great contributions to theories of color vision (Furumoto, 1992). She married a math professor from C olumbia University, and she occasionally taught adjunct courses there. However, she was rarely paid. Like Calkins, she did not receive her PhD, although she had completed all of the required work. Johns Hopkins University finally granted her the degree sho rtly before her death. She accepted the degree in person. At the turn of the 20th century, one popular belief held that there was more variability in intelligence in men than in women. One implication of this belief was that even the brightest of women wo uld never be as bright or even “outshine” the brightest of men. African American psychologist Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886 – 1939) challenged these beliefs with her research , which showed no evidence that the distribution of
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 14 intelligence test scores diffe red between men and women (Hollingworth, 1914). She also challenged the popular belief that women’s intellectual abilities were affected by their menstrual cycles, again finding no statistical evidence to support such claims (Silverman, 1992). Hollingworth ’s contributions are often seen as the seedlings for the formal study of the psychology of women. African American psychologist Mamie Phipps Clark (1917 – 1983) received her bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Howard University and her PhD from Columbia Un iversity in 1944. She is well known for her studies of racial differences in racial identity and self - concept (Clark & Clark, 1950). In the 1940s and 1950s racial segregation was becoming institutionalized, and Clark became interested in the effects of seg regation on African American children. She conducted a series of studies in which African American and white children were shown black and white dolls. The children were first asked to pick the doll they most looked like, establishing a measure of racial i dentity. Then, children were asked which doll they would most like to play with. Both white and African American children preferred the white doll, suggesting for both races of children a preference and perhaps more value on being white. Clark’s work was c onsidered and noted in the Supreme Court’s 1954 ruling in Brown v. Board of Education desegregation case, which ruled that public school segregation was unconstitutional. Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1950). Emotional factors in racial identification and preference in Negro children. Journal of Negro Education, 19, 341 – 350. Furumoto, L. (1992). Joining separate spheres: Christine Ladd - Franklin, woman - scientist. American Psychologist, 47, 175 – 182. Furumoto, L., & Scarborough, E. (1992). Placing women in the history of psychology: The first American women psychologists. In J. S. Bohan (Ed.) Seldom Seen, Rarely Heard (pp. 337 - 353). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Goodwin, C. J. (1999). A history of modern psychology. New York: Wiley. Hollingworth, L. S. (1914). V ariability as related to sex differences in achievement. American Journal of Sociology, 19, 510 - 530. Madigan, S., & O'Hara, R. (1992). Short - term memory at the turn of the century. American Psychologist, 47, 107 – 174. Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987). Untold lives: The first generation of American women psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press. Silverman, L. K. (1992). Leta Stetter Hollingworth: Champion of the psychology of women and gifted children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 20 – 27. Sokal, M. (2016). Elizabeth Scarborough (1935 - 2015). American Psychologist , 71(3), 246. ► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1 ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents Lecture Launcher 1.5 – Brief Biographical Profiles of M ajor Contributors to Psychology In the television show, Dragnet, Sergeant Joe Friday famously intoned, “Just the facts, ma’am.” If you’d like to share some fast facts about some pioneers in psychology, the snippets below may be of interest to you. Wilhel m Wundt (1832 – 1920) Born in Neckarau, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt was the fourth child of a Lutheran minister. Despite coming from a family that boasted numerous scholars, scientists, and physicians, Wundt initially was not a good student. After he dropped out of one high school, a teacher suggested that a reasonable goal for Wundt would be a career in the postal service. Wundt’s scholastic abilities improved, however, and in 1855 he graduated at the top of his class in medical school. Wundt then went to Berlin to study physiology with Johannes Müller, and he subsequently decided to become an experimental physiologist himself. Wundt then returned to the University of Heidelberg, where he worked as an assistant for Herman von Helmholtz. It was at Heidelberg in 186 2 that Wundt taught his first course in psychology. In 1879, at the University of Leipzig, where he held a chair in philosophy, Wundt established the Institute for Experimental Psychology, the first laboratory whose formal purpose was the scientific invest igation of the human mind. Wundt is one of the most prolific contributors to the field of psychology ever. It is estimated that between the years of 1853 and 1920, Wundt wrote 53,735 pages of text. Wundt was not only a voracious writer; he was also respons ible for training numerous researchers, some of whom, such as Edward Titchener, brought versions of Wundt’s psychology to America.
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 15 Edward Titchener (1867 – 1927) Edward Titchener, an Englishman and a student of Wilhelm Wundt, taught at Cornell University du ring the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries. Titchener is best known as the major proponent of structuralism, which focused on investigating the structure of conscious experience. Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) Sigmund Freud was born in Pribor, Czechoslovakia, in 1856. Although Freud was a gifted student, it took him eight years to finish his medical degree at the University of Vienna, partly because he was interested in so many topics. Freud first pursued a career as a neurologist, but financial concerns force d him into general medical practice. In cooperation with his friend Joseph Breuer, Freud began to treat hysterical women. This is unusual, because at the time there was no known cure for hysteria, which is now known as a conversion disorder. Through trial and error and feedback from his clients, Breuer and Freud developed the technique known as psychoanalysis. Its fundamental rule is honesty; clients must relay all thoughts and feelings uncensored to the analyst. Clients then follow their stream of thought wherever it may lead, a process known as free association. In the course of free association, clients often uncover traumatic events in the past and, upon reliving these events, often experience relief from their symptoms. Freud’s first major work, The Int erpretation of Dreams (1900), detailed the process of dream interpretation, which he felt was the “royal road to the unconscious.” Although it took six years to sell the first 600 copies printed, this work was reprinted eight times during Freud’s lifetime. Although the technique of psychoanalysis is perhaps Freud’s most important legacy, he made many other substantial contributions to psychology. These include the recognition of the importance of sexuality and unconscious processes, a fully developed system of personality, and an appreciation for the conflict between individual desires and the constraints of society. William James (1842 – 1910) William James, often considered the father of American psychology, was born in New York City but spent much of his childhood traveling between the United States and Europe, where he attended several private schools. James’s interest in such varied fields as philosophy, religion, and science were cultivated at home in an enriched environment shared with his brother Henr y James, the famous author. William James struggled to find a vocation that suited his various interests, trying his hand at art , chemistry, and finally, medicine. He received his MD from Harvard in 1868. In 1872, James began teaching physiology at Harvar d but was preoccupied by his ongoing and deep interest in such philosophical issues as free will and determinism. Though James considered himself a temporary dabbler in the discipline of psychology, his two - volume textbook, Principles of Psychology (1890), stood as the field’s definitive textbook through the first half of this century. It is still considered one of the best - written texts on psychology and a source of many original ideas. James’s contributions to psychology include the notion of a stream of consciousness, the importance of habit and instinct, and a complex theory of the self, theory of emotion, and opening the boundaries of psychology to include topics such as religious beliefs. John Broadus Watson (1878 – 1958) Watson is best known for his i nsistence that as a true science, psychology’s research methods must be objective and its subject matter observable. Often called “the founder of behaviorism,” Watson is one of the most dynamic, if enigmatic, figures in the history of American psychology. Born in 1878 in Greenville, South Carolina, Watson had a fairly unremarkable childhood, displaying neither the drive nor the vivid imagination that characterized him in his adult life. His enthusiasm for research and academic accomplishment first developed when he became involved in research work at the University of Chicago. Throughout his career at the university, he studied physiology of behavior in laboratory animals, and the patterns he observed later became the basis for his behavioristic theories. I n 1908, he left the University of Chicago to join the faculty at Johns Hopkins University where he entered the limelight of academia with the publication of an article in which he clearly stated the behaviorist point of view. A manifesto of sorts, the pape r argued that psychology must become an objective science, an experimental branch of the natural sciences whose goal would be to predict and control behavior. Watson was disenchanted with the introspective methods characterizing psychology at the time and advocated a purely objective and experimental means of studying behavior.
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 16 In 1914, Watson published a very important book, Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology , in which he advocated the study of animal behavior without resorting to “mental istic concepts.” This was the impetus behind the widespread study of rats and other animals for the purpose of developing behavior models in American psychology. Watson’s ideas leapt to prominence in a few short years. Because his redefinition of the disc ipline of psychology seemed to presage the course that modern psychology would take, he was elected president of the APA in 1915. In his presidential address, he linked Pavlovian theories of conditioning to his own behaviorist concepts. The indefatigable Watson, meanwhile, had launched experiments in which he applied behavioristic concepts to child rearing. The “Little Albert” experiment, in which he conditioned fear in an infant, is probably his most famous work. His book, Psychological Care of the Infant and Child , was the product of his research, and its enthusiastic reception made him a sought - after expert on child care. The whole range of human behavior fascinated Watson, and as early as 1917, he had begun studies into human sexual response. He observ ed sexual behavior in laboratory animals but wanted to explore the more complex changes that occurred in humans. The tenor of the times required the utmost discretion in pursuing this avenue of research. Watson used himself as a subject in his sexual respo nse research. He secretly monitored his female laboratory assistant and himself during their sexual intercourse. When Watson’s wife discovered the content of his experiments, she sued for divorce and had all of his records confiscated and destroyed. A majo r scandal resulted; Watson was dismissed from Johns Hopkins and married his research assistant. Unable to find an academic institution that would allow him a position on its faculty, he finally turned to private industry for employment in 1921. During the years that followed, he applied the principles of behaviorism to public relations and advertising techniques. He collected demographic data as a basis for marketing campaigns and instituted the use of subliminal suggestion and hidden symbolism in advertis ements. His expertise and enthusiasm for research in this new field made him a successful executive in one of the nation’s largest advertising firms. Although Watson continued to publish papers in scientific journals, he never again gained recognition fro m the scientific community. He died embittered at the age of 80. B.F. Skinner (1904 – 1990) Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born and raised in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania and received a bachelor's degree in English from Hamilton College in New York. Skinner enr olled in the experimental psychology program at Harvard and studied under E.G. Boring, earning his master ’ s degree in 1930 and PhD in 1931. In 1936, he began his academic career at the University of Minnesota; then, in 1945, he took a position as chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, however, Harvard offered him a position, which he accepted, and he remained there for the rest of his life. Skinner died of leukemia in 1990. While Skinner was at Harvard, he was heavily influe nced by the work of John B. Watson. From this influence, Skinner dedicated his life's work to studying the relationship between reinforcement and observable behavior. Throughout his career, he insisted that psychology be a scientific, empirically driven di scipline. He is considered by many to be one of the most important figures in 20 th - century psychology, and his contribution to both clinical and experimental psychology is evident in the work of psychologists who followed his lead, and to this day, extend his work in associative learning research. The principles of reinforcement that he outlined were built on by clinical psychologists and applied to the conceptualization and treatment of mental disorders. The application of behaviorism to clinical psycholog y was not short lived, as empirically supported treatments for anxiety disorders (e.g., panic disorder, simple phobia) and child conduct problems are based upon behavioral principles. Max Wertheimer (1880 – 1943) and Kurt Koffka (1886 – 1941) Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka were early Gestalt psychologists who argued that psychological experience cannot be reduced to its basic elements. Rather, they asserted that behavior and thought as a whole must be studied in order to understand psychological experience.
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 17 Wertheimer was born in Prague, Austria - Hungary in 1880. His father directed a private business college and his mother was an accomplished amateur violinist. Wertheimer studied law, philosophy, and psychology at Charles University in Prague. He later studie d philosophy and psychology at the University of Berlin under Carl Stumpf, and then moved to the University of Surzburg in 1904, obtaining his PhD under Oswald Kulpe. Wertheimer first discovered the phenomenon of apparent motion during a train trip, and la ter conducted studies on the phi illusion at Frankfurt, where Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka, his cofounders of the Gestalt school, participated as his research subjects. In 1933, Wertheimer fled Germany due to Hitler’s rise to power, coming to the United States. He taught at the New School for Social Research in New York City until his death in 1943. Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) Maslow was a humanistic psychologist best known for his development of a hierarchy of needs that must be fulfilled in order for an individual to reach self - actualization — the ability to realize one’s unique potential as a human being. Maslow received his PhD at the University of Wisconsin in 1934 under Harry Harlow. He then taught at Wisconsin for a year, followed by appointments a t Teachers College of Columbia University, Brooklyn College, and finally, Brandeis University, where he spent most of his academic career. He moved to Menlo Park, California in 1969 as a resident fellow of the Laughlin Foundation. Maslow is considered one of the foremost proponents of humanistic psychology and was the founder of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology . He is particularly known for his theory of motivation and the concept of a hierarchy of needs, ranging from basic survival needs to the need f or self - actualization. His influential writings include Toward a Psychology of Being (1962) and Religion, Values and Peak Experiences (1964). He served in 1968 as president of the APA. ► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1 ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents Lecture Launcher 1.6 – Scandal in Psychology: John B. Watson’s Fall from Grace John B. Wats on was a very famous person in his day , something students might not realize, as he usually gets only a few short paragraphs in introductory psychology text book s. In fact, at the end of his career in psychology he was an esteemed professor at the world - ren owned Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. At one time he was recognized as an authority on caring for babies, much as Dr. Spock and Dr. Brazelton would later become. He was married, a father, and respected in his field. All of that ended when he was fired over his affair with a graduate student, Rosalie Rayn e r. Mary Watson, his wife, insisted that the affair stop, as did Watson’s employers. But neither Watson nor Rayn e r wanted the affair to end (in fact they married in 1921 while his divorce f rom Mary Watson was still pending), and finally Johns Hopkins insisted that he resign. The subsequent divorce from Mary was front page news at the time. Watson, however, began a second successful career in advertising, working for the J. Walter Thompson agency and eventually becoming a vice president. Ironically, his ad campaigns for Maxwell House coffee and Ponds cold cream probably influenced many more people (at the time) than did his academic writing. It’s also plain that he made much more money as an ad executive than he ever did as a professor! A happy ending? Perhaps not. Rosalie Rayn e r died in 1935, aged only 35 years, and Watson lived alone on their farm until his own death in 1958 . By that point he had become embittered and reclusive, and had bur ned his vast collection of letters and personal papers, e f fectively putting an end to an important chapter in the histrory of psychology.
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Ciccarelli and White Psychology: An Exploration 4e Instructor’s Manual Chapter 1 18 Benjamin Jr, L. T., Whitaker, J. L., Ramsey, R. M., & Zeve, D. R. (2007). John B. Watson's alleged sex research: an a ppraisal of the evidence. American Psychologist , 62 (2), 131. Buckley, K. W. (1989). Mechanical m an: John Broadus Watson and the b eginnings of b ehaviorism. New York: Guilford Press. Duke, C., Fried, S., Pliley, W., & Walker, D. (1989). Contributions to the history of psychology: LIX. Rosalie Rayner Watson: The mother of a behaviorist’s sons. Psychological Reports , 65(1) , 163 - 169. Todd, J.T., & Morris, E.K. (1994). Modern perspectives on John B. Watson and classical behaviorism. New York: Greenwood Press. ► Return to Lecture Guide for Chapter 1 ◄ Return to complete list of Lecture Launchers for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents Lecture Launcher 1.7 - The Study of Bumps on the Head Franz Joseph Gall (1758 – 1828) was a skilled brain anatomist whose descriptions of the brain's gray and white matter, cerebral commissures, and contralateral innervation remain an important part of the knowledge base of neurology and psychology. Also, Gall was among the first to discuss the relationship between brain and behavior. Unlike the dualism of Descartes, Gall's view asserted that the mind was located in the brain. His studies of the brains of animals and of people of various ages and types indicated that cognitive abilities are based on the amount and placement of healthy cortical tissue, and that greater amounts of cortical tissue are usually associated with superior functioning. This field was named phrenology . An additional important aspect of Gal l's view was that personality characteristics and abilities are determined by independent, genetically determined, neurologically distinct structures (Fodor, 1983). Gall postulated 27 faculties, including amativeness (sexual behavior), acquisitiveness, rev erence, verbal memory, marvelousness, love of the picturesque, defensiveness, and number. Gall's neuroanatomy research and "faculty" theory led to the notion of phrenology. Unfortunately, it is phrenology for which Gall is remembered best and as a result, ridiculed. His true accomplishments have been buried under the quackery of phrenology, even though it was his followers, rather than Gall himself, who were responsible for the worst sins of phrenology (Fodor, 1983). What’s more, Gall's theories are often misrepresented or misunderstood by critics and modern historians. Phrenology, as developed by Gall and his followers (such as Spurzheim and Combe), asserted that 1) the mind is located in the brain; 2) mental abilities are determined by innate faculties t hat are located in specific parts of the brain; 3) the size of the brain devoted to a faculty indicates the strength of that faculty; 4) the shape and external characteristics of the skull at particular locations reflect the brain beneath those locations; and 5) examination of the head/skull allows a description of the individual's personality and abilities (Kurtz, 1985). These ideas supposedly were stimulated by Gall's boyhood observation that several of his classmates who were not generally more intellige nt, but who were more scholastically successful because of their superior memory abilities, all had large, bulging eyes (Fancher, 1979), and were furthered by Gall's later anatomical research. Through the study of many individuals, Gall and his associates mapped the regions of the skull they believed corresponded to each of the 27 faculties. For example, Gall's boyhood observation led to the hypothesis that verbal memory ability is reflected in the region of the cortex lying immediately behind the eyes: The brain is overdeveloped at that location when ability is great, and causes the eyes to protrude. Gall's interactions with a "Passionate Widow" revealed a large, hot neck, which he interpreted as a sign that the cerebellum at the lower back of the brain was the seat of sexual behavior ("amativeness") (Fancher, 1979, p. 48). Phrenology has been attacked on several points. First, the skull does not accurately reflect the underlying brain. Thus, even if the size of the brain at specific locations did indicate the strength of the corresponding faculty, the skull's topology would be worthless for determining this. Second, although certain abilities do seem to be localized in specific parts of the brain (e.g., speech production at Broca's area), the amount of brai n tissue does not reflect the level of the ability. Also, the 27 faculties are poorly chosen and described. Many are ill - defined, and others are usually considered to be the result of the combination of several other abilities, not independent faculties. A third major problem was the rather unscientific methods of research used to "confirm" the theory. Gall and his associates reportedly cited only cases that supported the theory, while ignoring or explaining away negative results (Fancher, 1979). Gall emplo yed the concept of "balancing
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