Class Notes for Exploring Marriages and Families, 3rd Edition

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Instructor’s Manualand Test BankForExploring Marriages& FamiliesThirdEditionKaren SeccombePortland State UniversityPrepared bySME,Melissa O’ConnorCanisius College

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ContentsChapter 1Why Study Families and Other Close Relationships?1Chapter 2Social Status: Sex, Gender,Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class15Chapter 3Building Relationships27Chapter 4Love and Loving Relationships38Chapter 5Sexual Identity, Behavior, and Relationships48Chapter 6Communication, Conflict, and Power in OurRelationships61Chapter 7Marriage71Chapter 8Thinking about Parenthood81Chapter 9Raising Children91Chapter 10Families and the Work They Do102Chapter 11Family Stress and Crisis: Violence amongIntimates113Chapter 12The Process of Divorce125Chapter 13Family Life, Partnering, and Remarriage after Divorce135Chapter 14Families in Middle and Later Life144Chapter 15Looking Ahead: Helping Families Flourish156

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1CHAPTER1Why Study Families and other closeRelationships?CHAPTER SUMMARYFamilycan be defined as a relationship by blood, marriage, or affection, in which members maycooperate economically, may care for children, and may consider their identity to be intimatelyconnected to the larger group. While important differences may exist among families, there aresome important universal patterns. These include regulating sexual behavior, reproduction and so-cialization of children, property and inheritance laws, economic cooperation, and social placementof family members. Social structures like the economy, government, religion, and education affectfamily structures. Important family structures includestatusesandroles; other important patternsthat affect family structure and family dynamics include marriage patterns (e.g.,monogamyversuspolygamy), patterns of authority (e.g.,patriarchyversusegalitarianism), patterns of descent (bi-lateral, patrilineal, and matrilineal), and residence patterns (neolocal, patrilocal, andmatrilo-cal). Research demonstrates that families are always in transition; many important changes in thefamily have been documented in both China and the United States. Many of these changes concernurbanization and industrialization. Social science theory and research play an important role inhelping family researchers objectively understand families and family dynamics. The major re-search methods used by researchers includesurveys, in-depth interview, experiments, focusgroups, observational study,andsecondary analysis.Theories help us frame research questionsand analyze data. Some theories focus on macro-level phenomena (structural functionalism, con-flict theory, andfeminist theory), while others focus on micro-level phenomena (social exchangetheory, symbolic interactionism, developmental theory, andsystems theory).LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter reading Chapter 1, students should be able to:1.Identify the different definitions of “family” and their implications.2.Describe the functions of families.3.Recognize the link between micro-level and macro-level perspectives on families.4.Assess the ways that families are always changing.5.Summarize the importance of social science theory and research.CHAPTEROUTLINEI.HOW DO WE DEFINEFAMILY?A.The question of how to define the concept of family may seemsimple, but it can have asurprisingly complex answer.

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2Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & FamiliesB.The number of traditional two-parent heterosexual parent families has declined, while thenumber of nontraditional families is on the rise.1.Nontraditional family forms include childfree married couples, multigenerationalfamilies, unmarried adults who cohabitate and sometimes have children, stepparentswhose stepchildren reside with them only part of the time, and gay and lesbian cou-ples are increasing in number.2.Diversity in family forms increases the difficulty of providing an adequate defini-tion.C.Legal versus Social Science Definitions1.The U.S. Census Bureau defines family as two or more people living together whoare related by birth, marriage, or adoption.a)This definition excludes heterosexual or homosexual unmarried partners, and isused as the basis for many social programs and policies.b)Many people object to this definition because it excludes groups that considerthemselves to be family.D.This text uses a more inclusive definition, and proposes that afamilyis a relationship byblood, marriage, or affection, in which members may cooperate economically, may carefor children, and may consider their identity to be intimately connected to the largergroup.1.It includes thefamily of orientation, or the one into which a person is born.2.It includes thefamily of procreation, or the one a person creates by marrying,partnering, or becoming a parent.E.The text includesfictive kinin its definition of family.1.Fictive kin are nonrelatives whose bonds are strong and intimate.2.These persons provide important services and care for individuals; yet they are notallowed to claim benefits that traditional family members can expect to receive (taxbenefits or health insurance).F.Why Are Definitions So Important?1.Societal definitions of concepts like the family have consequences for rights andprivileges, including health insurance and Social Security benefits.a)Unmarried partners cannot file a joint tax return.b)The offspringofan employed person may receive health insurance benefits,while the unmarried partner may be excluded.c)Unmarried partners are not eligible for membership discounts.II.THE FUNCTIONS OF FAMILIESA.Despitesome differences, family forms are remarkably similar across time and place.1.All societieshavemarriage, a public, institutional arrangement between persons torecognize social and intimate bonds.

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CHAPTER 1Why Study Families and other close Relationships?32.Norms exist to regulate who can marry whom, how many spouses a person canhave, what the ceremony should be like, and how married persons should behave.B.Anthropologist William Stephens defines marriage as a socially legitimate sexual unionthatis publically announced; undertaken with some idea of permanence; and implies acontract that spells out reciprocal obligations between spouses and between spouses andchildren.C.Marriagesand families in all cultures include a variety of functions such as the following:1.Regulation of Sexual Behavior.All societies stipulate who can have sex withwhom and when. Theincest taboo, which forbids sex between close familymembers, is a cultural universal.2.Reproducing and Socializing Children.All societies need to produce new mem-bers and ensuresocialization.Socialization means that children are taught therules, expectations, and culture of the society in which they live. When repro-duction is undertaken by the family, rather than by unrelated partners, the birthparents are held responsible for socializing children.3.Property and Inheritance.As societies evolved, they developed surplus foodand property, which meant that they needed to be able to identify heirs towealth. Monogamy meant that men could identify their offspring and theirheirs.4.Economic Cooperation.Families cooperate to clothe, feed, shelter, and supportchildren and other members. Gender is often linked to a division of or.5.Social Placement, Status, and Roles.Families provide members with an identityand place in society (statuses and roles). This includes social class, racial andethnic identities, and religious affiliation.6.Care, Warmth, Protection, and Intimacy.Humans need more than food andshelter to survive. Families are expected to provide the emotional care necessaryto survive.D.Becausewe have lived in a family, we may think of ourselves as family “experts.” How-ever, our personal experiences are part of a larger picture that we may not see; we cannotfully appreciate this without understanding the environment in which family processestake place.THEME 1:LINKINGTHE MICRO-LEVEL AND MACRO-LEVEL PERSPECTIVES ONFAMILIESA.Understandingfamiliesby linking themicro-leveland themacro-levelperspectives.1.While we may think of family in terms of our own personal experiences, we mustlocatefamilyin the context of thesocial structurefound in our society.2.Social structurerefers to the patterns of social organization that guide our interac-tions with others.a)Most people focus on theirmicro-levelexperience (e.g., I chose her or him be-cause, we decided not to have children because) and concentrate on individual-level interactions in specific settings.

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4Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & Familiesb)People who use this perspective focus on individuality and personal decisionmaking, and the interactions between groups in specific situations.3.Despite having unique qualities, family relationships also share many importantqualities.4.A theme of this text is thatelements of social structures shape our daily experienc-es, privileges, and constraints.5.Amacro-levelperspective examines the ways in which marriage, families, and in-timate relationships are interconnected with the rest of society and with other socialinstitutions.a)Familiesare not isolated entities.b)Social, cultural, political, and economic forces shape our decisions.B.Family as a Social Institution1.Families aresocialinstitutionsupheld by beliefs and rules organized to meet basichuman needs.2.In early human civilization, families were the center of most activities; they educat-ed the young, cared for the sick, and practiced religion.3.Despite a high divorce rate, people still want to marry, and still agree on some basicbehavioral expectations for husbands and wives. Fidelity is one example.4.Family is linked to other social institutions; religious customs, the type of economy,the structure of education, and political systems all shape family patterns, as do atti-tudes, behaviors, and opportunities.C.Social Statusand Families1.Statusis another elementof social structure; this refers to the social position thatone occupies.2.Most people occupy many statuses; son, daughter, friend, roommate are examples.3.Master statusesdominate others. Sex, race, ethnicity, and social class generallyoperate as master statuses.a)Racial discrimination may play a role in these differences.D.An Example of the Interrelationship of Macro-level and Micro-level Perspectives:Unemployment and Marriage Rates1.Single-parent households are blamed for a variety of social ills, and are morelikelyto be poor. The text raises the question of why poor and low-income women likeTerry Lynn have children without marrying their children’s father.2.Some research shows that poor women value marriage highly, and believe that theirown relationships cannot meet their expectations.3.William Julius Wilson’s research indicates that inner-city women view inner-citymen as risky because they cannot support families on their low wages.4.Outsourcing and relocation of jobs to suburbs drives up unemployment and povertyrates, thereby decreasing marriage rates.

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CHAPTER 1Why Study Families and other close Relationships?55.Substance abuse, homicide, violence, high incarceration rates, immigration policies,technological advances, women’s opportunities, and new conceptions of fatherhoodalso affect marriage rates.E.Human agencyrefers to the ability of humans to create viable lives even when they areconstrained or limited by social forces.1.Regardlessof social class, age, or gender, we are actively directing our lives, eventhough powerful social forces shape our opportunities.2.This reinforces the idea that we must be aware of the ways that social structure in-fluences our lives and choices.IVTHEME 2:FAMILIESARE ALWAYS CHANGINGA.The secondthemeof this book is change; families are constantly undergoing change asthey adapt to meet their needs.B.Marriage patternsincludemonogamy, polygamy,polygyny,andpolyandry.1.Monogamyrefers tomarriagebetween one man and one woman. This pattern isfound widely, though not exclusively throughout the world.2.Polygamyrefers to a system that allows for more than one spouse at a time (genderunspecified).3.Polygynyis a form of polygamy that allows men to have more than one wife.a)Although illegal in the United States, there are estimated to be about 50,000–100,000 families that practice polygyny, primarily in the western states.b)This pattern is also legal in some areas of Africa, the Middle East, and SouthAmerica. Having numerous wives is a status indicator for wealth and education.It is also a way to increase fertility within a family.4.Polyandryis a form of polygamy that allows women to have more than one hus-band.a)This rare pattern is most often found in areas where harsh environmental condi-tions increase the likelihood that men will need to share the burden of support-ing a wife and children.b)Infant girls are more likely to be seen as burdensome, increasing the likelihoodof female infanticide. In turn, this increases the shortage of women.C.Patterns of Authority: Patriarchy, Matriarchy,andEgalitarianism.1.Patriarchymeans rule of the father; this system grants men authority over women.This right is reflected in the rest of the major social institutions, including religion,government, and the economy. This pattern is widespread throughout the world.2.Matriarchyis a pattern that grants women the right to have power over men; how-ever, no true cases of matriarchy have ever been documented.3.Egalitarianismis a pattern that vests power in men and women equally. The UnitedStates and other developed countries are moving in this direction.D.Patterns of Descent:Bilateral, Patrilineal, andMatrilineal.

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6Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & Families1.Developednations typically trace lineage and property rights through both themother and the father. This gives a person two sets of grandparents.2.Patrilinealsystems trace lineage and inheritance exclusively or primarily throughthe father’s family line. Minimal connections exist between offspring and the moth-er’s side of the family.a)Some vestiges of this are still evident in the United States. For example, off-spring are more likely to bear the father’s last name, and sons are often giventheir father’s first name in subsequent generations. There is no equivalent pat-tern for girls.E.Residence Patterns:Neolocal, Patrilocal, and Matrilocal.1.Neolocalresidence patterns assume that couples will establish their own residenceafter marriage.2.Patrilocalresidence patterns assume that couples will live with the husband’s fami-ly.3.Matrilocalresidence patterns assume that couples will live with the wife’s family.F.Families in Transition: China1.Many changes have taken place over the past few decades. These include an emerg-ing market-based economy, a more highly educated workforce, and a large numbersof cars and the infrastructure necessary for cars.2.Many traditional beliefs have changed, including those relating to women’s roles,marriage, and children.3.Couplesin China are still required to apply for permission to marry. The govern-ment decides when a couple can marry in order to regulate births.a)Thispattern is part of the one-child policy. Most couples are allowed to haveonly one child, and face heavy fines or pressure to have an abortion if they getpregnant without government permission.b)Until the policy was liberalized in late2013, the one-child policy worked to im-prove the standard of living for many Chinese people.4.The Chinese government recently banned elective amniocentesis tests. Ultrasoundscannersare restricted; this means that parents cannot determine the sex of thechild. They have also implemented an educational program designed to change pa-rental attitudes toward girls.5.Changes in the numbers of abandoned girls available for adoption have been noted:in 2015, there were 2,354 Chinese girls adopted in the United States, down from7,900 in 2005.G.History of Family Life in the United States1.The U.S. history provides evidence of ongoing changes in families.2.Family LifeinColonial America: European Colonists. Family historians haveshown that families were the cornerstone of colonial society and acted as:

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CHAPTER 1Why Study Families and other close Relationships?7a)Businesses.Families were the center of economic production; households werenearly self-sufficient at producing food, clothing, furniture, and householdgoods.b)Schools.Formal schooling was rare; parents educated their children in voca-tional and technical skills.c)Churches.Churches tended to be far away; families worshipped and prayed to-gether.d)Correctional institutions.Jails were rare; courts sentenced criminals to work forand with respected families.e)Health and social welfare institutions.There were no hospitals and few doctors,so families and women in particular took care of the sick, the aged, the home-less, and the orphaned.3.Most colonial families lived innuclear familiesrather thanextended families.a)Nuclear familiesconsist of adults and their children.b)Extended familiescomprise parents, children, and other relatives, such asgrandparents.c)Families were large (e.g., six or more children) and siblings could be as much as25 years apart in age.d)High mortality rates meant that husbands or wives might have married two orthree times.e)Marriage and family were central events in people’s lives; couples were seen asa team. However, women were not seen as equals, but as helpmates and wereexpected to obey their husbands.f)Parents believed that children were born with “original sin” and therefore, werevery strict. No concept of adolescence existed; as soon as children were oldenough, they were expected to labor on the farm or in the household.4.Colonial America: African Americans and Slavery.The first Africans forcefullybrought to the colonies were indentured servants, and were freed and able to buyland once they served a specified amount of time.a)By the 1800s, the United States prohibited importing new slaves. This resultedin some owners encouraging family relationships and childbearing among theslaves they owned.b)Slave marriages were fragile; more than one-third were terminated due to thehusband or wife being sold to another household.c)Prior to the Civil War, there were over a million slaves in the United States with150,000 free African Americans living in the South, and another 100,000 livingin the northern part of the United States.d)Being “free” did not necessarily mean that African Americans were allowed tovote, attend White schools, or be hired for jobs. This led to high poverty ratesand many female-headed households.5.Industrialization, Urbanization, and Immigration.These three factors broughtmany changestofamilies during the 19th and early 20th centuries.a)Industrializationmeant that the economy shifted from small farms to large, ur-ban industries. Work became something people did away from the home.

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8Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & Familiesb)In search of jobs, many people moved from rural areas to the city; this is knownasurbanization.c)Immigrants fromEuropeand Asia moved to the United States in search of a bet-ter life, and provided cheap labor that fueled furtherindustrialization.6.The Poor and Working Classes.Most immigrants were poor and lived in sub-standard housing without adequate sanitation.a)Working conditions were extremely dangerous; many people worked 60–80hour workweeks.b)Stressorslike these were associated with alcoholism, violence, crime, and othersocial problems.7.Middle and Upper Classes.The ideal for these families was a breadwinner fatherand stay-at-home mother. Children were seen as “innocents,” who could be shapedby proper parenting (the mother’s role).8.The Rise of the “Modern” Family—the 20th Century.The early-to mid-1900ssaw two World Wars, a depression, and the relative affluence of the 1950s and1960s.a)Increasingnumbers of cars meant that more families lived in suburbs and thatfathers commuted to work.b)Companionatefamilies, based on mutual affection, sexual attraction, compati-bility, and happiness emerged.c)The average age at first marriage dropped, 19 for women and 20 for men.d)Federal programs played a role in these trends by underwriting projects forhighway construction, more homes in the suburbs, and low interest loans.H.Families Today.Over the past few decades, our economy has outsourced many manu-facturing jobs and replaced these with lower-paying service sector positions.a)This trend has made it hard for families to survive on one paycheck, and so,many women have entered the workforce.b)There is evidence of increasing social inequality; middle-class and working-class wages have stagnated.c)Increasing numbers of workers have evening or weekend shifts; this increasesthe risk of divorce in families with children.d)Purchasing power has declined because wages are not keeping up with inflation;this especially hurts low-income workers.e)Half of all workers earning minimum wage are over age 25; most work in thefood service industry.f)A minimum wage of $7.25 per hour translates into an annual income of only$14,500.g)Housing costsremain unaffordable for many people. The average price of a sin-gle-family home in late 2016 was $232,000; a two-bedroom apartment averages$1,330.00 per month. About 12 million households pay more than half their in-come in housing.

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CHAPTER 1Why Study Families and other close Relationships?9V.THEME 3: THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORY AND RESEARCHA.The third theme in this book is anappreciation for the role that social science theory andresearch play in helping people understand families and close relationships.1.Everyone has opinions based on information filtered through the lens of the massmedia,friends, parents, religious teachings, and laws.2.Because we have been raised in a family ourselves, we may assume that our per-sonal experiences or our “common sense” gives us expertise.3.This text assumes that the scientific method canprovide information that is moreobjective; commonsense notions of how women should be treated have changedsubstantially in our country. Other countries still allow husbands to beat wives.4.Ifcommon sense varies so much over time and from place to place, we need to useanempirical approach, which answers questions through a systematic collectionand analysis of data.5.The empirical approach can help us to understand patterns of family dynamics, andultimately, to build stronger families. The goals of family research cana)Describe some phenomenon(patterns of domestic violence).b)Examine factors that predict or are associated with a phenomenon(who reportsviolence and who does not).c)Explain cause-and-effect relationships(how alcohol and violence are linked).d)Examine the meanings and interpretations of some phenomenon(how men andwomen interpret the meaning of the label “victim”).B.How Do We Know What We Know? Methods of Social Research1.There are many ways to gather information about families; the text discusses sixre-searchmethods.2.Surveysgather information via questions; if done correctly, a survey produces gen-eralizable results.a)Randomsamples are the key to generalizable results.b)Every member of the population has the same chance of being selected for thestudy.c)If it is impossible to find a complete list of everyone of interest, we may use asnowball sample.d)There are several types of surveys, including phone, mail, and in-person sur-veys.3.In-depth interviewsallow an interviewer to obtain detailed responses to questions.Thequestionformats can be highly structured or emergent.4.Experimentsare used to test cause-and-effect relationships under highly controlledconditions5.Focus groupsobtain information from small groups of people who are brought to-gether to discuss a topic. Such group interview may work well when the researcheris in an exploratory stage of research.

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10Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & Families6.Observational studiesgo to the natural setting to observe people in action. Someobservational studies use direct observation, while others require the researcher togo undercover and become a participant observer.7.Secondary analysisresearch makes use of previously gathered information. TheU.S. Census Bureau and the Department of Justice often provide such sources of in-formation. While not as expensive as other methods, compromise is often involvedfor the researcher, because the data may not have been collected in the way that theresearcher would have collected it.8.Some research isquantitative, and makes use of information that can be measurednumerically; other research isqualitativeand uses narrative description with wordsrather than numbers to analyze patterns.a)No one method is superior to the others—it depends on the question beingposed.C.Theories: Helping Us Make Sense of the World1.Research is guided bytheory, a general framework, explanation, or tool used tounderstand and describe the real world.a)Theoryis important before and after the data has been collected.b)Prior to research, theories help to frame questions; after the data has been col-lected, they help us to interpretfindings.2.Some theories are more macro. These include structural functionalism, conflict the-ory, and feminist theory. These theories attempt to understand large-scale featuresof society.3.Other theories are micro. These include social exchange theory, symbolic interac-tionism, developmental theory, and systems theory. These theories help us to under-stand dynamic interaction.4.Structural functionalism theoryattempts to determine the structure, systems,functions, and equilibrium of social institutions.a)This theory focuses on how the family is organized, and how it interacts withother social institutions, the functions that the family performs, and how itworks to stabilize our society.b)Parsons and Bales studied the division of labor in the family, and noted theways that this contributed to the stability and functioning of the family.5.Conflict theoryemphasizes social inequality, power, conflict, and change.a)Marxist theorists focus on the ways that capitalism affects family life.b)Other conflict theorists examine power and inequality; for example, why the el-derly receive universal health care while children do not.6.Feminist theoryisrelated to conflict theory, but makes gender the central focus oftheir research. They are interested in power imbalance between men and women;such imbalance is reflected in the gendered division of household labor.7.Social exchange theorydraws upon an economic model of human behavior;hu-mansare seen as rational decision makers who assess costs and rewards. Familystructures and dynamics are seen as the result of a rational decision-making process

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CHAPTER 1Why Study Families and other close Relationships?11that evaluates social, economic, and emotional costs and benefits relative to knownalternatives.8.Symbolic interaction theoryemphasizes the symbols we use in everyday interac-tion—words, gestures, appearances, and how these are interpreted. Our interactionswith others are based on the way we interpret symbols such as a ring, a kiss, or asmile.9.Developmental theorysuggests that families and individual family members gothrough distinct stages over time. Each stage has its own set of tasks, roles, and re-sponsibilities. The stages include getting married, having children, preschool years,school-age years, teen years, launching children into adulthood, being a middle-aged parent, and aging.a)Now theorists recognize that not all families experience these events (e.g., somecouplesdo not have children, or do not marry).b)Developmentaltheoristsuse both micro and macro approaches to describe andexplain family relationships.10.Systems theoryproposesthat a family system—the family members and the rolesthey play—is larger than the sum of its individual members.a)The family contains subsystems, such as the married couple subsystem, the sib-ling subsystem, or the parent–child subsystem.b)Communication patterns are important to role maintenance and stability.D.Family Decline or Not? What Does the Research Reveal?1.Some people are concerned that the family is in trouble. There are three majorcon-cerns: Americans are rejecting traditional marriage and family life; family membersare not adhering to roles within families; social and moral problems result fromthese changes.2.Others suggest that families have always faced challenges. Efforts to bolster thefamily have often met with resistance. For example, childcare, jobs, health care, andhousing programs are at odds with the rugged individualism of the United States.3.To determine which view is correct, we must rely on research toanswer the ques-tion of family decline.E.Are We Rejecting Marriage and Family Relationships? Attitudes1.Research shows that there is a continued emphasis on and commitment to marriage,children, and family life.2.University of Michigan research has shown that high school seniors have notchanged their attitudes much toward marriage and family life since 1976.F.Are We Rejecting Marriage and Family Relationships? Behaviors1.U.S. Census data show that the percentage of people who are currently married hasdeclined.2.It is likely that the rising age at first marriage may explain why fewer people arecurrently married.3.Divorce is declining, not increasing.

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12Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & Families4.While data show that an increasing number of people do not have children, many ofthese (about half of childfree women ages 40–44) are involuntarily childless.VI.BRINGINGIT FULL CIRCLEA.Our viewsaboutfamily relationships reflect both micro-level and macro-level factors.1.Micro-level factors include personal choice and interpersonal dynamics.2.Macro-level factors includebroadersocial structures, such as social institutions, andthe statuses of race, sex, and ethnic identity.B.Rather thanrelyingon common sense or personal opinion, family researchers are inter-ested in systematically uncovering patterns and answering questions using social scienceresearch methods.TEACHING SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVE LEARNING1.The opening vignette raises the question of how students see their families. Use athinking map to allow students to draw their family tree (a tree map works best forthis). Thinking maps are especially helpful to students who are visual learners. Al-ternatively, students can locategenogramsoftware online. Have students bring theircompleted family trees (or, allow them to do this in class), and then tally the num-ber of times specific family statuses are mentioned. Have students write a reflectionor summary of the patterns they see.2.To assess student perceptions of different family forms, ask them to complete abubble map in which they provide as many adjectives for the “single-parent” familyas they can in five minutes. Tell students not to write their names on the bubblemap. After the students have completed their adjective list, tally the list of adjec-tives, deleting duplicates. Have students write a reflection or summary of the pat-terns they see. Are there any patterns of prejudice?3.Have students explore the issue of pets as family members. Ask them to locate em-pirical data on the amount of money that people spend on pets per year. This can in-clude overall expenditures, insurance for pets, as well as legacies for pets. Whatfactors might contribute to the change in the status of pets as family members?(Students might think in terms of delayed marriage, longer life spans, more mobili-ty, etc.)A useful journal source is Albert, A., & Bulcroft, K. (1988). Pets, family,and the life course.Journal of Marriage and Family, 50, 543–552.4.The website forChanging Mindsprovides a comprehensive list of various heuristicsand fallacies. Break the class down into groups, assign a heuristic to each group,and have them explain the heuristic to the class and provide examples that relate tothe family. For example, the concepts of illusory correlation and the confirmationbias can be discussed to show how easy it is for students to draw inappropriate con-clusions about other groups (e.g., gay families, single-parent families, and familiesin poverty). This site also has a list of various attributional errors that can be used tomake similar points. For example, in her bookSo You Think I Drive a Cadillac?Welfare Recipients’ Perspectives on the System and Its Reform, Third Edition,2011, Seccombe discovers that welfare recipients see their own use of the systemdifferently than they see others use of the system.

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CHAPTER 1Why Study Families and other close Relationships?135.Toencouragestudents to use critical thinking skills as they analyze family formsand patterns, have them access the website for the Critical Thinking Community.Have students write a short essay on the elements of critical thinking.6.To encourage students to apply family theories to analyze family behaviors, havethem apply one or more of the theories discussed in Chapter 1. For example, stu-dents could use Merton’s concepts of manifest and latent functions to analyze how alegal change in the definition of the family might impact society. Be sure to havethem make a list of manifest dysfunctions so that they can think about the role thatpolitical pressures might play in resisting changes to the official definition.7.Have the class conduct a short survey outside of class and present the findings tothe rest of the class. It may be helpful to break the class into groups of three or fourstudents and give them one or two questions to research. Each student should inter-view between five and ten respondents. For example, students could ask respond-ents how they feel about men who choose to take their wives’ names, or if theyfavor changing the legal rights of unmarried partners. They should be sure to get thegender and the marital status of the respondents. Have them present their findings ineither bar charts or pie charts (to keep it simple) to the rest of the class. Make surethey understand that gender and marital status are independent variables, and the re-spondent’s attitude would be the dependent variable. Students should also discussthe limitations of their “study,” as they will most likely have to use snowball orconvenience sampling.VIDEO SUGGESTIONSBeyond the Nuclear Familydescribes case studies and interviews with family members. The pro-gram examines changing roles, structures, and functions of the family unit. It covers such topicsas societal expectations, technological advancements, and changes in cultural and sexual diversityand highlights emotional, environmental, economic, and health-related considerations for evolv-ing family characteristics.2008. 25 minutes.Insight Media. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY10024-0621. 800-233-9910.Families Today and TomorrowThis program explores types of modern families, including single-parent families, stepfamilies, and multigenerational families who live in a single household. 2007.30 minutes.Insight Media. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621. 800-233-9910.The Power of Familylooks at different family types and examines physical, emotional, intellectu-al, social, and moral development in each of the types. 2008. 18 minutes. Insight Media. 2162Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621. 800-233-9910.The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap. 9/2010. Stephanie Coontz,YouTube.SUGGESTED READINGSBianchi, Suzanne, John P. Robinson, and Melissa A. Milkie. 2007.Changing Rhythms of Ameri-can Family Life.2007. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.Flick, Uwe. 2011.Introducing Research Methodology: A Beginner’s Guide to Doing a ResearchProject.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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14Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & FamiliesPowell, Brian, Catherine Bolzendahl, Claudia Geist, and Lala Carr Steelman. 2010.Counted Out:Same Sex Relations and Americans’ Definition of Family.New York, NY: Russell Sage Founda-tion.White, James. 2007.Family Theories.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.As noted in Chapter 1, the one-child policy in China reduced the population, butcame with serious costs. Were the costs worth it? What other strategies can popu-lous countries like China employ to reduce the population to prevent starvation?How would conflict theorists and structural functionalists view this policy?2.According to Chapter 1, divorce seems to be declining. What are some macro-levelreasons for this decline?3.Why is there so much variation among the states with respect to the divorce rate?For example, in 2007, the divorce rate in Florida was 86.4, while in Oregon, it wasonly 14.8. What are some possible reasons for such variation?4.How do recessions (macro-level) affect one’s personal decision to marry or divorce(micro-level)?5.Suppose that you were in charge of family policies in the United States. What poli-cies would you implement to increase the marriage rate among the poor? What pos-sible unintended consequences might emerge from your policies?6.Which of the familyfunctionslisted in Chapter 1 do you think is the most importantin contemporary society and why? As the text notes, in colonial times, the familyfunctioned as a commonwealth. However, today, many of those functions have dis-appeared as society industrialized, and labor markets became more specialized.What social forces will change family functions in the future?

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15CHAPTER2Social Status: Sex, Gender, Race,Ethnicity, and Social ClassCHAPTER SUMMARYSex, race, ethnicity, andsocial classare social statuses that have a strong influence on our lives.Depending on these status characteristics, we have different opportunities, experiences, and treat-ment.Patriarchyintersects with sex as a biological construct andgenderas a sociological con-struct. They are found in a wide variety of social institutions, including legal, educational,religious, and economic ones. One powerful example of patriarchy is genital cutting, a practice thatis widespread and appears to be growing. Patriarchal norms still exist in the United States, and arereflected in high rates of plastic surgery, name changes, pay differentials, and occupations.Gendersocializationexists in all societies; agents responsible for this process include parents, schools,toys, peers, and the mass media. In turn, gender influences our family and our close relationships,as well as the division of household labor. Race and ethnicity influence our close relationships,including fertility rates. The United States is racially diverse—yet, this diversity has not eliminatedthe problems ofprejudiceanddiscrimination. Some discrimination is individual; some is institu-tionalized, and may go unrecognized. Recent research documents that both of these are still prob-lematic in the U.S. Educational attainment and family structure vary by race; for example, AsianAmericans are more likely than other groups to go to college and earn an advanced degree. Theimpact of social class in the United States is often denied or downplayed. Researchers have identi-fied six social classes: theupper class,theupper middle class,themiddle class,theworkingclass,theworking poor, and theunderclass. Social class influences the likelihood of being born,our health, our gender expectations, our values, the likelihood of going to college, dating practices,the likelihood of marrying, our hobbies, and the types of stressors we experience. People in differ-ent classes have differing levels ofsocial capital, or the social contacts that provide valuable in-formation. About 43 million persons experience poverty in the United States. Those who live inpoverty experience more stress and more adverse life events than those who do not.LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter reading Chapter 2, students should be able to:1.Summarize the link between private experiences and social structure.2.Explain the importance of sex, gender, and patriarchy to families.3.Describe the importance of race and ethnicity to families.4.Identify the importance of social class to families.5.Discuss how poverty affects families.6.Analyze the intersections of sex, gender, race, ethnicity, and class.

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16Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & FamiliesCHAPTER OUTLINEI.THE LINK BETWEEN PRIVATE EXPERIENCES AND SOCIAL STRUCTUREA.Sex, race, ethnicity, and social class are social statuses that,alone and together, have astrong influence upon us throughout our lives. They are also dimensions of social stratifi-cation.1.Not all categories are treated equally. Some people have more, less, or at least dif-ferent opportunities because of their sex, race, social class, or a combination ofthese.2.Women and men, Whites and minorities, and the rich and the poor can have quitedifferent experiences. For example, low-income families have significant difficul-ties finding even something as basic as housing. The median wage needed to payfor a two-bedroom rental unit was about $20 per hour, more than double the mini-mum wage and far more than many families earn.3.Thus, the rich and the poor, women, minorities, and Whites often have different so-cial experiences. Acknowledging differences allows us to concede that our privatelives and family relationships are affected by what is happening in society. Thisrecognition is called thesociological imagination. Certain categories of people aremore likely to experience certain events than are others.4.Some students arereluctantto acknowledge sex, race, or ethnicity as organizingconstructs in our society. However, economic data reveal that women still earn only83 percent of men’s earnings, even when both work full time.5.Many neighborhoods remain racially segregated. In Chicago, Illinois, Whites live inneighborhoods that average 80 percent White, despite being only 60 percent of thepopulation. Blacks live in neighborhoods averaging 75 percent Black, yet theycomprise only 20 percent of the population in Chicago. People in the same neigh-borhood who attend the same schools and churches are likely to be of the same so-cial class and share similar values. Lack of contact with individuals outside oursocial class, race, and ethnicity can foster misconceptions about these individuals.6.Understanding the ways in which race and ethnicity, sex and gender, and socialclass shape our lives allows us to make rational choices about our own lives and ourrelationships with others. Acknowledging differences does not have to make us feelsuperior or inferior.II.SEX,GENDER, AND PATRIARCHYA.Sexrefers to biological differences between men and women and their role in reproduc-tion;genderdescribes the culturally and socially constructed differences between malesandfemalesthat we find in meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with “femininity”and “masculinity.”B.Sex and Gender Differences1.Poems, nursery rhymes, and songs often accentuate the traditional differences be-tween men and women. Historically, people have viewed masculinity and feminini-ty as a set of different, or even opposite, traits. Men are often considered to benaturally more aggressive, strong, and independent, whereas women may be con-sidered to be more emotional, nurturing, and sensitive.

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CHAPTER 2Social Status: Sex, Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class172.Researchers note some important biological differences between men and womenbeyond those needed for reproduction. For example, males are diagnosed with awider variety of physical illnesses despite being stronger, more active, and moreaggressive on average. In contrast, females are more likely to be diagnosed with anemotional illness such as depression.3.On average, males and females also solve intellectual problems differently. Mentend to perform better on certain types of mathematical reasoning tests. Womenoutperform men in the precision with which they perform certain manual tasks.Women also tend to excel on tests measuring recall and matching.4.Studies in the last few decades suggest that the size, shape, and use of the brain maydiffer somewhat between men and women in regions involved in language,memory, emotion, vision, hearing, and navigation. Women also seem to use moreparts of their brain at once. Hormonal differences may be the cause of some of thedissimilarity, as women have higher levels of estrogen and progesterone, and menhave high levels of testosterone.5.We do know that social and cultural factors, alongside biology, are very powerful.What one culture defines as feminine behavior, another may see as quite masculine.Thus, gender is socially constructed.C.Gender Learning1.We learn expectedgenderbehavior through a process calledgender socialization,which teaches us cultural norms associated with being male or female.2.Gender socialization also has an importantevaluativecomponent. We learn thatmany traits associated with men or boys are considered “better” than the ones asso-ciated with women or girls.3.Agents of socializationare the social groups responsible for gender socializationand include parents, schools, toys, peers, and the mass media, as shown in Table2.2.a)Parents:Parents provide the first exposure to a particular culture, and con-sciously or not, theymaytreat their sons and daughters differently.b)Schools:From daycare through high school, schools present a hidden curricu-lum that informally teaches girls to value compliance. School textbooks andreaders often have stories of boys or men as main characters, relegating girlsand women to the sidelines or showing them in a limited number of roles or oc-cupations.c)Toys:Children’s toys, books, and games also reflect our gendered culture andteach children important cultural messages about what is means to be a boy,girl, man, or woman. Video games are an increasing part of children’s andteens’ entertainment. Women and girls are featured much less frequently and of-ten shown in subordinate or hypersexualized ways.d)Peers:The influence of peer groups begins early, reaching its peak in adoles-cence. Psychologist Eleanor Maccoby found that children between the ages oftwo and three tend to sort themselves into same-sex play groups when given theopportunity to do so, and are more social with children of the same sex.e)The Media:The mass media, including television and video games, representan increasingly important mechanism for socializing children. In top-grossingG-rated films, 80.5 percent of all working characters are male and 19.5 percent

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18Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & Familiesare female. In contrast, in the real world, women comprise half of the paidworkforce.D.How Do Race, Ethnicity, and Class Shape Gender Socialization?1.It does appear that there are significant class, racial, and ethnic variations in thegender socialization process.E.Gender’s Influence on Our Family and Close Relationships: Division of HouseholdLabor.1.Gender isparticularlyevident within families and close relationships. A striking ex-ample is how work chores are divided in the home. Cooking, cleaning, groceryshopping, yard work, and laundry are critical functions, and take increasing timewhen a family has children. Household labor has been traditionally defined as“women’s work” and was not deemed worthy of scientific study 20 or 30 years ago.2.Yet, a 2007 poll by the Pew Research Center reveals many people are adamant thatsharing household chores is “very important for a successful marriage.”3.We now know that women average up to two to three times the amount of time onhousehold tasks that men do. A similar although less dramatic pattern occurs withchildcare. These differences continue to hold when the wife is employed or whenboth partners are retired, and they persist at all income levels. In fact, marriage hasbeen shown to increase women’s time spent in housework, while it reduces men’stime.4.One explanation for why women do a disproportionate share of the household laboris that society has defined such work as simply part of being a woman.F.Male Privilege: Patriarchy1.Patriarchy, introduced in Chapter 1, is found in a wide variety of social institutions,including legal, education, religious, and economic ones.2.As women improve their economic status, male-female relationships tend to be-come more egalitarian. Clear patterns of male dominance continue to exist even inthe United States.3.Female Genital Mutilation:“Female circumcision,” “female genital cutting,” or“female genital mutilation” is commonly practiced in over two dozen countries inAfrica, the Middle East, and among some immigrant communities in North Ameri-ca and Europe.a)In one form, clitoridectomy, the clitoris is literally cut out of the body. In themore extreme form, infibulation, a girl’s entire external genitalia is removed.b)More than 200 million girls and women today have had their genitals cut or mu-tilated, and the practice appears to be spreading.c)Although no religion formally endorses female genital mutilation, it is wide-spread because of customs demanding that women be virgins at the time of mar-riage and remain sexually faithful thereafter.d)Female genital mutilation persists because women’s status is low, and their op-tions in society are few. Marriage and motherhood are the primary ways inwhich they receive recognition.

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CHAPTER 2Social Status: Sex, Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class194.Does patriarchy exist in the United States? The United States has its own set of pa-triarchal norms and customs.a)Nearly 16 million cosmetic surgery procedures were performed in the UnitedStatesin2015.b)Most children carry their father’s last name. When they marry, most womentake their husband’s last name.III.RACE AND ETHNICITYA.Likesex and gender, race and ethnicity are also statuses that deeply influence our rela-tionships and families.1.Blacksare more likely than Whites to live in extended families.2.Hispanics have the largest number of children, while Asian Americans are mostlikely to be childfree.3.Blacks are less likely than other groups to remarry.4.Teenage pregnancy and birthrates are declining among all racial groups, but thelargest declines have been among Blacks.5.Whites are least likely to live in poverty, while Native Americans are most likely todo so.6.Hispanics, in particular Mexican Americans, are least likely to have health insur-ance.7.Asian Americans are least likely to divorce.8.Blacks begin sexual activity earlier than other groups.B.The Population Is Growing More Diverse.Theoretically,raceis category describingpeople whosharereal or perceived physical traits that society deems socially significant,such as skin color. However, over the last half-century or so, due to tremendous growthin our knowledge of genetics, race has ceased to be a useful construct.1.Ethnicity, or shared cultural characteristics such as language, place of origin,dress,food, religion, and other values, is a more useful concept. Ethnicity represents cul-ture, whereas race attempts to represent biological heritage. People who share spe-cific cultural features are members of an ethnic group.2.Minority groupsare categories of people who have less power than the dominantgroup, and who are subject to unequal treatment.3.The United States is a nation with many minority groups, and is becoming evenmore diverse. About one person in three is a member of a minority group, and inHawaii, New Mexico, California, Texas, and the District of Columbia, minoritiesoutnumber non-Hispanic Whites. By 2050, minority groups are likely to comprisemore than half of the U.S. population.4.Throughout its history, people have immigrated to the United States. Today, about13 percent of our population, or 42 million people, immigrated to the United Statesas either children or adults.C.Prejudice and Discrimination: Pervasive Problems.Researchers at the University ofChicagosubmittedfictitious resumes to over a thousand ads in Boston and Chicago

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20Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & Familiesnewspapers. Resumes were randomly assigned Black-or White-sounding names, but oth-er aspects of their resumes were similar.1.Many jobs are never posted in newspaper want ads, but are advertised informallythrough “word of mouth” or through social networking connections. These connec-tions, referred to associal capital, can be a valuable source of information.2.Prejudiceis a negative attitude about members of selected racial and ethnicgroups.It often comes fromstereotypes, or an oversimplified set of beliefs about a group ofpeople.3.Discriminationis behavior that has harmful effects, such as refusing to hire orpromote someone because of his or her race or ethnicity. Discrimination remainswidespread in the United States today, as noted by the Equal Employment Oppor-tunity Commission.4.Individual Discrimination: One person exhibiting a negative behavior toward an-other person.5.Institutional Discriminationoccurs when social institutions, such as the govern-ment, religion, and education, create policies and practices that are systematicallydisadvantageous to certain groups.D.Hispanic Families1.The label “Hispanic” contains so manydiverse ethnic groups that it may not makemuch sense to combine them into one category.2.In the past, the growth in the Hispanic population was primarily fueled by immigra-tion, but today only about a third of Hispanic children are first generation, that is,were born elsewhere and immigrated here. Instead, the rapid growth of the Hispanicpopulation is attributable to its high birthrate.3.Differences between first-and second-or third-generation Hispanics are very pro-nounced, and the future of U.S.-born children of Hispanic immigrants looks bright.They are better educated and more likely to speak English, and more likely to holdmainstream U.S. values.4.Second-and third-generation Hispanics are becoming increasingly assimilated andoften blend in easily with Whites. Nonetheless, many second-generation Hispanicsreport personal experience with discrimination.E.Black Families1.Blacks, comprised primarily although not exclusively of African Americans,makeup about 13 percent of the U.S. population. On average, Black families tend to besomewhat larger than those of Whites.2.Black families are also larger because they are more likely to contain extended fam-ily members, including grandparents, aunts, and uncles.3.Black families are more likely than any other racial or ethnic group to be headed byfemales. In 2014, 70 percent of Black children were born to single mothers, com-pared to 53 percent of Hispanics and 20 percent of Whites in that year.F.Asian American Families1.The term “Asian” or “Asian American” is a catchall for many different groups whohad their origins with the early peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indi-

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CHAPTER 2Social Status: Sex, Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class21ansubcontinent. Often combined with these diverse groups are Pacific Islanderswho have origins in Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific islands.2.Asian Americans have been sometimes nicknamed a “model minority.” This is be-cause their families tend to be stable, their parents are highly educated and work inprofessional jobs, and they have the highest family incomes of any group, surpas-sing that of Whites.3.Many important factors help to explain why Asian American families are so suc-cessful. Many who came to the United States were from privileged social classes intheir counties of origin.4.Not all Asian American families are doing well on social and economic indicators.In particular, some of the more recent immigrants lack the resources of other AsianAmericans, and therefore have low incomes and high rates of poverty.G.Native American and Alaska Native Families1.Native Americans and Alaska Natives comprise about 2 percent of the U.S popula-tion, at about 5.4 million. Three-quarters identify themselves as belonging to a spe-cific tribe.2.Extended familiesare the cornerstone of Native American family life, and childrenenjoy close relationships with their grandparents, particularly grandmothers. Morethan half of Native Americans and Alaska Natives live with their grandchildren.3.Native American families do face many challenges. Infant mortality rates are com-paratively high and life expectancy is low. Unemployment and poverty rates arehigh, and many live in inexpensive and substandard housing.H.Interracial and Interethnic Families1.Millionsofpeople in the United States have a clear and unequivocal connection totwo or more racial or ethnic groups.2.Parents of multiracial or multiethnic children continue to face issues that other par-ents do not experience. For example, when both parents are White, despite good in-tentions, they may know very little about how prejudice and discrimination reallyoperate.IV.SOCIAL CLASSA.While social class is less visible than race, ethnicity, or sex, we are probably all aware, tosome degree, that social class can have a significant impact upon our lives.1.In the United States social class is often downplayed or denied. Social class is notjust about money; it encompasses an entire way of seeing and experiencingtheworld.2.Think back to Becca in the opening vignette. How do you think that poverty influ-enced her sense of self and her self-esteem?B.Approaches to Measuring Social Class1.Social classis an abstract concept compared to sex, race, or ethnicity because wecannot always identify social class or who are members of these classes. Socialclassesarebased most obviously on income and wealth, but also on other resources,such as education and your occupational prestige.

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22Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & Families2.Today researchers often define class as some combination of education, occupation,and income, and we sometimes call this combinationsocioeconomic statusorSES.Dennis Gilbert and Joseph A. Kahl (1993) have developed a widely used model ofsocial class based on SES: (1) the upper class; (2) the upper middle class; (3) themiddle class; (4) the working class; (5) the working poor; and (6) the underclass.3.The Upper Class: The upper class is the wealthiest and most powerful social classin the United States and consists of only about 3–5 percent of the population.4.The Upper-Middle Class: Approximately 15–20 percent of the U.S. population iscategorized as “upper middle class.” Members of the upper middle class tend to behighly educated professionals, including physicians, dentists, lawyers, college pro-fessors, and business executives. Household income may be in the range of$120,000 to $250,000.5.The Middle Class: Most people say they are middle class, but less than 40 percentof households are. Middle class families earn about $50,000 to $120,000 per year.The median household income is a little over $54,000 for all households, $68,000for married couples, and $36,000 for female-headed households.6.The Working Class: The term “working class” is somewhat misleading becausejust about all adults work. Therefore, somepeople refer to this group as the “lowermiddle class.” They earn less than middle-class families, approximately $25,000 to$50,000. Jobs may include factory and custodial work and semiskilled labor. About23 percent of U.S. families belong to the working class.7.The Working Poor: The working poor, comprising about 20 percent of the popula-tion, are employed in minimum-or near-minimum-wage jobs, such as service workin the fast-food industry. Their wages hover near or only slightly above the povertyline, up to about $25,000 a year.8.The Underclass:This group, perhaps 3–5 percent of the population, is extremelypoor and often unemployed.C.How Does Social Class Affect Our Family and Close Relationships?Just as with sex,race, andethnicity, social class influences many aspects of family life.1.Ourlikelihoodof being born2.Our health3.Our gender expectations4.The values our parents socialize in us5.Our likelihood of attending and graduating from college6.Our dating and premarital sexual expectations7.Our likelihood of marriage and age at first marriage8.Our hobbies and pastimes9.The types of stresses we experience and coping mechanisms we employD.Social Mobility and the Lack of It1.While theoretically people in the Unites States can be anything they want to be, inreality there is little upwardsocial mobility, or movement from one social class toanother. People usually live out their lives in the same social class in which they are

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CHAPTER 2Social Status: Sex, Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class23born because of the norms they learn and the constraints and privileges they experi-ence.V.POVERTYA.The Social Security Administration established the officialpoverty thresholdin 1964 as away to measure the number of people living in poverty. Survey data in the early 1960sindicated that families spent approximately one-third of their income on food.B.The poverty threshold varies by family size (and a few other features) and is revised year-ly based on inflationary changes in the Consumer Price Index. The 2015poverty thresh-oldswere $18,871 for a family of three, and $24,257 for a family of four.C.Who Is Poor?About 43 million people, or 13.5 percent of the U.S. population, lived inpoverty in 2015. Twenty percent of children—about one in five—live in poverty.D.Consequences of Poverty.Poor families face a higher degree of stress, disorganization,and other problems.1.Poorchildrenexhibit more antisocial behavior and are more likely to drop out ofschool or become teenage parents, are more likely to suffer from depression, andare in poorer health.2.Inadequate Health and Nutrition: Poor children also may receive inadequate foodnutrition. About 14 percent of households experienced food insecurity at some pointin a year. Seventeen percent of households with children are food insecure. Chil-dren run the risk of more frequent colds, ear infections and other infectious disease,impaired brain function, and stunted growth, and are more vulnerable to lead andother environmental toxins.3.Quality of the Home Environment: Poverty has a significant negative effect on thequality of stimulation of the home environment. One study of the linguistic capa-bilities of young children found that poor children on welfare between the ages of13 and 36 months hear only half as many words per hour as the average working-class child, and less than one-third the average of a typical child in a professionalfamily.4.Parental Stress and Mental Health: Parents who are living in poor conditions have ahigh level of stress, depression, and mental health problems related to their situa-tion. Poor children have a higher probability of being abused, neglected, and moreseverely injured by abuse than do their affluent peers.5.Fewer Resources for Learning: On average, poor children have fewer resources forlearning in the home, including books and educational toys. Childcare and pre-school are expensive,so many poor children start school behind their peers.6.Housing Problems: Poor families often live in crowded and disease-ridden housingthat may lack proper cooking, heating, or sanitation facilities.7.Poor-Quality Neighborhoods: Poor children are increasingly isolated from the non-poor in their communities and live in inner cities where violence, crime, truancy,loitering, and a sense of despair predominate. Guns kill over 2,700 children andteens each year, and homicide is the leading cause of death.

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24Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & FamiliesVI.THEINTERSECTIONS OF SEX, GENDER, RACE, ETHNICITY, AND CLASSA.Despite the statuses previously described, we are not simply male or female, AsianAmerican or Hispanic, rich or poor. Our statuses intersect with one another. For ex-ample, a person may be a White working-class female; a Chinese American upper-class male, a Black middle-class female, a White upper-class female, or any numberof other racial, ethnic, gender, sex, and class combinations. We have multiple status-es, and they all interact to shape our lives.VII.BRINGING IT FULL CIRCLEA.Sex and gender, race and ethnicity, and social class, individually and together, shape aconstellation of privileges and constraints that can affect our goals, opportunities, andchoices. These statuses shape both us and the way others respond to us.TEACHING SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVE LEARNING1.The text makes the point that there are many similarities between men and women.One way to demonstrate the extent to which gender is socially constructed is toconsider gendered language. In general, women are expected to express themselvesin a more passive way, and to be supportive and nurturing. Men are expected to bedirect and express themselves in more aggressive or assertive ways. Select a seriesof famous quotes by leaders that contradict these expectations, and have the stu-dents attempt to guess the gender of the speaker, or match the quotes to the person.Margaret Thatcher, Benazir Bhutto, Eva Perón, Mohandas Gandhi, and the DalaiLama are interesting sources, because their quotes often contradict gender stereo-types. One of Thatcher’s famous quotes that may surprise students is: “A worldwithout nuclear weapons would be less stable and more dangerous for all of us.” Afamous quote by Eva Perón is: “Answer violence with violence. If one of us fallstoday, five of them must fall tomorrow. “The Dali Lama said: “Be kind wheneverpossible. It is always possible.” Mohandas Gandhi said: “In a gentle way, you canshake the world.”2.William Julius Wilson has argued that the significance of race is declining, and thatsocial class is a more important determinant of life chancesfor African Americans.However, not all research supports this conclusion. Divide students into groups andask half the group to create a fishbone diagram that shows factors that may supportWilson’s hypothesis (class shapes outcomes); the other half should create a fish-bone diagram that refutes it by showing how race shapes social class outcomes.3.Marketers andadvertisers play a significant role in gender socialization. At theheart of this multibillion-dollar industry is the process of persuasion. Neuromarket-ing is the latest trend in advertising. This body of research shows that consumersmay make decisions without even being aware of the decision-making process.Have students watch theFrontlineprogram “The Persuaders.” How can these tech-niques be used to create explicit and implicit gender-based messages?4.Havestudents read Devah Pager’s 2003 “The Mark of a Criminal Record” [Ameri-can Journal of Sociology108 (5) 937-975], and discuss the implications of this arti-cle for Wilson’s hypothesis, and for minority family outcomes in general.5.To further help students understand the important role played by the media in gen-der socialization, have them access the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media.Students can read research summaries and view videos on this topic.

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CHAPTER 2Social Status: Sex, Gender, Race, Ethnicity, and Social Class256.Havestudents explore the links between race and class by visiting the EconomicPolicy Institute website. Ask them to access the State of Working America page,and use the links there to learn more about childcare funding, unemployment, andmore.7.Break the class down into groups and assign each group a “social class.” Assignthem typical family incomes, and then tell them they are to figure out how to pur-chase a car, and insure it. Have them use local ads and bank information to createtheir plan. If possible, they should try to get accurate financial information about theodds of someone getting a loan when they are unemployed, or severely underem-ployed. Have them present their reports to the rest of the class. Ideally, the reportshould contain photos of the car, prices, interest rates, and so on. Some of thegroups may find that it is impossible to purchase a car and then also insure it. Incontrast, the “very wealthy” groups will find that they can spend hundreds of thou-sands of dollars on their car (Mercedes Maybach, Maserati, Ferrari, etc.). The Na-tional Center for Children in Poverty has a family budget calculator that may behelpful to students.8.A variant on the previous exercise would be to assign students to a social class, andthen tell them they have just won five thousand dollars. Ask them to indicate howmembers of each class would likely spend the money.VIDEO SUGGESTIONSGeneration M: Misogyny in Media and Culture. This program explores sexism in the media. Itexamines the hypersexualization of commercial products aimed at girls, violence in video games,and stereotypes of femininity and feminism. 2008. 58 minutes.Insight Media. 2162 Broadway,New York, NY 10024-0621. 800-233-9910.Brain Sex.This program shows that brain chemistry does not fit neatly into male and female cate-gories. It presents scientific experiments that explore such sex-related brainfunctions as emotion-al recognition, empathy, competition, communication, and basic cognition. 2005. 51 minutes.Insight Media. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621. 800-233-9910.Born With a Wooden Spoon: Welcome to Poverty USA. This program focuses on the consequenc-es of poverty; multigenerational poverty is also discussed. 2006. 60 minutes.Insight Media. 2162Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621. 800-233-9910.People Like Us: Social Class in America.This video explores social class issues in the UnitedStates. Topics covered include race, class, social mobility, the class structure, and lifestyle. 2002.124 minutes. Insight Media. 2162 Broadway, New York, NY 10024-0621. 800-233-9910.SUGGESTED READINGSCarr, Patrick J. and Maria J. Kefelas. 2010.Hollowing Out the Middle: The Rural Brain Drainand What It Means for America.Boston: Beacon Press.Ehrenreich, Barbara and Deirdre English. 2005.For Her Own Good: Two Centuries of the Ex-perts’ Advice to Women.New York: Anchor/Random House Books.Hansen, Karen V. 2005.Not-So-Nuclear Families: Class, Gender, and Networks of Care. Pisca-tawny, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

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26Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & FamiliesHill, Shirley and Susan J. Ferguson. 2008.Families and Social Class: Families in the 21st Centu-ry.Boston: Allyn and Bacon.Korgen, Kathleen Odell. 2010.Multiracial Americans and Social Class: The Influence of SocialClass on Racial Identity. New York: Routledge.Laureau, Annette. 2003. Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race and Family Life. Berkeley, CA: Uni-versity of California Press.DISCUSSION QUESTIONS1.An important theme in this chapter is the role played by social class. Football coachBarry Switzer is famous for the following quote: “Some people are born on thirdbase, and go through life thinking they hit a triple.” Have students discuss the sig-nificance of this quote for social class. How can students who are born in the mid-dle and upper social classes understand the lived experiences, the challenges, andthe stresses experienced by those who live in the working class or the underclass?2.Have students discuss the connection between gender socialization and the divisionof household labor. Given that statistics show a majority of women still do a dis-proportionate share of household chores, what social forces might work to changethis?3.Have students read theWashington Postarticle “The High Cost of Poverty: Whythe Poor Pay More,” (DeNeen L. Brown, 5/18/2009) and then have them discuss theimplications of regressive taxes, substandard housing, inadequate public transporta-tion, and so on for the family.4.While most students will agree that the Federal Poverty Guidelines are unrealistic,few have thought about the consequences of changing the guidelines. Have the classanalyze the implications of raising the bar to $30,000 dollars for a family of four.What positive outcomes would result? What negative outcomes would result?5.Given that the United States is increasing in diversity, when will institutionalizeddiscrimination cease to be a problem? Or, will it always be with us in some form orthe other?6.In many cases, students overlook the role of power in culture (e.g., false conscious-ness); they may conclude that if women support genital cutting, then what is theharm? Have them apply the conflict perspective to this issue.

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27CHAPTER3Building RelationshipsCHAPTER SUMMARYInterpersonal relationships are shaped by macro-level social and cultural factors. These increase ordecrease the chances of remaining single, dating, cohabiting, and marrying. There are four types ofsingles: thevoluntary temporary single, the voluntary stable single, theinvoluntary stable sin-gle,and theinvoluntary temporary single. Friendships, another type of interpersonal relationship,vary by gender, race, ethnicity, and social class. Men and women have about the same number offriends, but men’s friendships appear less personal or intimate than women’s do. Members of theworking class are more likely to have enduring friendships than are those in the middle classes.Cross-sex friendshipspresent many challenges. Industrialization and consumerism have playedroles in changing the nature of courtship from parent directed and supervised to self-directed, withless parental involvement. A separate period of life known asadolescenceemerged, which had asignificant impact on courtship patterns. Dating became associated with fun and entertainment.Popular students were found to have more dates than those who were not. Waller’s research ondating couples found that the level of emotional attachment between dating partners varied signifi-cantly. He coined the termprinciple of least interest to describe theunequal emotional involve-ment between romantic partners. Thus, dating is more distinct from mate selection than in the past.Relationships (romantic and non-romantic) tend to be homogamous because ofpropinquityandparental pressure to choose those who are similar to us. Most dating partners still meet in tradition-al places, for example, work, school, friends, and family. Still, gendered scripts continue to existwith respect to dating. Reasons for heterosexual cohabitation have varied over the past century.Today, cohabitation is very common, and attitudes toward it are more favorable than in the past.However, cohabitation is no guarantee of subsequent marital stability. Overall, research on gay andlesbian relationships do not find many significant differences; however, some research suggeststhat same-sex couples may actually be closer, more open, and more autonomous than heterosexualcouples.LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter reading Chapter 3, students should be able to:1.Analyzea typology of singlehood.2.Describe issues surrounding friendships.3.Identify the influences on dating, courtship, and mate selection.4.Describe heterosexual cohabitation.5.Discuss gay and lesbian intimate relationships.

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28Instructor’s Manual and Test BankForExploring Marriages & FamiliesCHAPTER OUTLINEI.ANALYZE SINGLEHOODA.We may all be born single, but very few of us remain that way forever. Only about 4 per-cent of people never marry—a number that has remained stable for generations. Howev-er, what is different today is the large and growing number of people who delay marriage,who prefer to cohabit instead of marrying, or who are divorced.B.How Many Stay Single? It Depends on How You Define It1.The U.S. Census Bureau classifies people into one of several specific groups: “nev-er married,” “married,” “separated,” “divorced,” and “widowed.” Can you see aproblem with this classification? It ignores the social meaning of being single. Peo-ple like Jono and Meghan, who live together, are classified as “never married,” im-plying that they are single even though they have a committed partner. Divorcedand widowed persons, who are single, are not classified as such.C.What Does It Mean to Be Single? A Useful Typology1.If we want tobroadenour understanding of singles, we should ask two critical ques-tions: (1) Is it voluntary? and (2) Is it temporary? Together, these two dimensionsyield four very different groups of singles.a)Voluntary temporary singles:Many so-called single people are really just de-laying marriage. They may be pursuing higher education or establishingthem-selvesin a career.b)Voluntary stable singles:Voluntary stable singles want to be single, and wantto be so for life. Catholic priests and nuns, for example, take a vow of celibacy.In most states, same-sex couples cannot legally marry, and therefore would becategorized as voluntary stable singles.c)Involuntary temporary singles:Involuntary temporary singles are those whowould like to be married, but cannot seem to find a partner.d)Involuntary stable singles:A small number of people who would like to bemarried never will be.II.FRIENDSHIPSA.Some of our most important and intimate relationships are with our friends.Friendshipsnot only provide companionship but they are also good for our health. Having closefriends that you can confide in may help you live longer. Friends have been shown tolower blood pressure, heart rates, and cholesterol levels. Friendships perform a myriad ofduties: They support us, help us build communities, enhance our self-esteem, and teachus about ourselves and others.B.Being Friends: Sex Differences1.Researcherslookingat same-sex friendships have compared the quality and quanti-ty of men’s and women’s attachments. Men and women have about the same num-ber of friends, but men’s friendships appear less personal or intimate than women’s.Women are more verbal and self-disclosing with their friends, while men spendtime with other men engaging in activities.2.A studyofadolescents found several important differences in same-sex friendships.

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