Sociology - Culture and Societies - Quick Guides

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Study GuideSociology–Culture and Societies1. Cultural Values1.1 What a Society Believes InEvery culture is built aroundvalues. Values are shared ideas about what isgood or bad,right orwrong, andfair or unfair. They guide how peoplethink, act, and make decisions in everyday life.Sociologists agree that values matter—but they don’t all explain them in the same way.1.2 Different Ways Sociologists Look at ValuesSome sociologists focus ondifferences, while others focus onsimilarities:•Conflict theoristsstudy how values can vary between groups within the same society. Theylook at how power, inequality, and competition shape what people value.•Functionalistsfocus on the values that most people in a society share. They believe theseshared values help keep society stable and working smoothly.Both perspectives help us understand culture more clearly.1.3 Important Values in American SocietySeveral sociologists have identified key values in American culture:•Robert K. Merton, a conflict theorist, argued that Americans strongly valuewealth, success,power, and prestige. However, he also pointed out thatnot everyone has the sameopportunityto achieve these goals.

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Study Guide•Talcott Parsons, a functionalist, emphasized the shared value of theAmerican work ethic.This idea encourages people to work hard and believe that effort leads to success.Other sociologists have suggested that Americans share a broad set of core values, including:•Accomplishment and material success•Problem-solving and reliance on science and technology•Democracy and patriotism•Charity and helping others•Freedom, equality, and justice•Individualism•Responsibility and accountabilityThese values influence many aspects of American life, from education to work to politics.1.4 When Values ConflictEven though societies have shared values,conflicts between values are common. For example:•The value ofmaterial successcan clash with the value ofcharity.•The value ofequalitymay conflict withindividualism.These contradictions happen because people don’t always act the way they say they believe. Whatwe value in theory doesn’t always match what we do in real life.1.5 Real Culture vs. Ideal CultureTo understand this difference, sociologists use two important terms:•Ideal culturerefers to the values and norms that peopleclaimto believe in.•Real culturerefers to the values and norms that peopleactually followin everyday life.

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Study GuideRecognizing the gap between real culture and ideal culture helps sociologists better understand howsocieties truly function.In SummaryCultural values shape how societies operate, but they are not always simple or consistent. Differentgroups may value different things, and people’s actions don’t always match their beliefs. By studyingboth shared values and conflicts, sociologists gain adeeper understanding of culture and socialbehavior.2.Cultural NormsEvery culture hasnorms, which are shared expectations and rules that guide how people behave indifferent situations. These norms help society run smoothly by letting people know what is consideredappropriate orinappropriate.It’s important to remember thatnorms are not the same everywhere. They can change from oneculture to another. For example, in the United States, people usually make direct eye contact duringconversations to show interest and confidence. In many Asian cultures, however, avoiding direct eyecontact can be a sign of respect and politeness. Neither behavior is right or wrong—they simplyreflect different cultural norms.2.1Types of Cultural NormsSociologists group norms into four main types. Each type plays a different role in guiding behavior.1. FolkwaysFolkwaysare everyday customs or traditions that are socially approved but not morally serious.Breaking them might seem rude or strange, but it usually doesn’t cause major consequences.For example, loudly belching after a meal at someone else’s home in American culture breaks afolkway. People may think it’s impolite, but it is not considered immoral or illegal.2. MoresMoresare norms that are strongly tied to a culture’s sense of right and wrong. These rules mattermuch more than folkways, and breaking them can seriously offend others.

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Study GuideFor instance, attending church in the nude would violate moral expectations in most cultures andwould be deeply offensive.3. TaboosSome behaviors are so strongly condemned that they are consideredtaboo. A taboo is an act that aculture absolutely forbids.An example in U.S. culture is incest. These behaviors are viewed as unacceptable under anycircumstances.4. LawsLawsare formal rules created and enforced by the government. They are backed by authority andpunishment, such as fines or jail time.Most taboos, like child abuse, are also illegal. However, not all mores become laws. For example,wearing a bikini to church may be offensive to many people, but it is not against the law.2.2Why Norms MatterFor a culture to survive and function,its members must generally follow its norms. People usuallydo this because they learn and accept these rules as normal and important.This process happens intwo key ways:•Internalization: People absorb cultural values and norms and come to see them as natural orcorrect.•Socialization: Adults teach these norms and values to children so they understand how tobehave in society.2.3Social Control: WhatHappens When Norms Are BrokenSometimes, internalization and socialization are not enough. When people do not follow norms,societies usesocial controlto encourage conformity.Social control can take many forms, such as:

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Study Guide•Being ignored or excluded (ostracism)•Paying fines•Receiving punishments•Being imprisoned for serious violationsThese responses help remind individuals of acceptable behavior and maintain order in society.In SummaryCultural norms shape everyday life by guiding behavior, defining right and wrong, and helping societyfunction smoothly. While norms vary across cultures, every society relies on them to create order,shared understanding, and cooperation among its members.3. Cultural DiversityPeople often talk about ideas like “American culture,” “white culture,” or “Western culture” as ifeveryone in the United States shares the same beliefs, traditions, and lifestyles. This way of thinkingcan be misleading. It ignorescultural diversity, which means the existence of many different culturesand cultural differences within a single society.In reality, the United States is made up ofmany cultural groups, each with its own traditions, values,and ways of life. There is no single, uniform culture that represents everyone.3.1 Subcultures: Groups Within the Larger CultureWithin a society, smaller cultural groups often exist alongside the dominant culture. Sociologists callthese groupssubcultures.Subcultures share many values of the dominant culture, but they also have their own unique features.Members may usedistinctive language, behaviors, music, or clothingthat set them apart.Examples of subcultures include:•Heavy metal music fans

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Study Guide•Body‐piercing and tattoo enthusiasts•Motorcycle gang members•Nazi skinheadsEthnic groups in the United States can also be considered subcultures. Groups such as GreekAmericans, Italian Americans, Irish Americans, Mexican Americans, and African Americans oftenadapt to mainstream American life while stillkeeping important traditions, customs, and sometimestheir native languages.3.2 Countercultures: Challenging the MainstreamUnlike subcultures,counterculturesactively reject or oppose the norms and values of the dominantculture.Groups such as hippies and protest movements are examples of countercultures. Their members areoftenteenagers or young adults, since this stage of life is commonly associated with self‐discovery,questioning authority, and experimentation.Over time, many—but not all—members of countercultures eventually adopt the norms and values ofthe dominant culture as they grow older.3.3 Assimilation and MulticulturalismThe United States is often described as a“melting pot,”made up of many cultural, subcultural, andcountercultural groups. When the dominant culture absorbs these groups and they lose many of theiroriginal cultural traits, the process is calledassimilation.Today, however, many people support a different idea known asmulticulturalism. This perspectivevalues the coexistence of multiple cultures without requiring them to give up their unique identities.Multiculturalism recognizes that:

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Study Guide•Some shared cultural values help society function•Cultural differences are also important and worth preservingFor example, students in schools today learn that the United States isnot the only culture in theworldand that other cultures and viewpoints can offer valuable ideas and perspectives.3.4 Ethnocentrism: Judging Others by Our Own StandardsEthnocentrismoccurs when people judge other cultures based on the standards of their own culture.Because cultural norms shape what feels “normal,” people may assume their way of life is natural orcorrect and see other ways as strange or wrong.This mindset can cause people to forget that behaviors considered normal in one culture may becompletely different—and equally valid—in another part of the world.A more extreme and dangerous form of ethnocentrism isnationalism, which involves an intenseidentification with one’s nation and the belief that it is superior to others. Nationalism often includesthe idea that a nation has a special or historical right to dominance. This was a major factor in NaziGermany during World War II.3.5 Cultural Relativism: Understanding Cultures on Their Own TermsSociologists work to avoid ethnocentrism. Instead, they usecultural relativism, which meansevaluating a culture based on its own standards rather than comparing it to another culture.From this perspective:•No culture is considered better or worse than another•Cultures are simply differentBy using cultural relativism, sociologists are better able to understand and respect other cultureswithout assuming their own culture is superior.

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