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College Physics for AP� Courses 2e - Lab Manual (2022)

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    —— _— openstax™ College ) ~ for AP® Courses Advanced Placement® and AP® are trademarks registered and/or owned by th Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, || ——

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    College Physics ® for AP® Courses 2e SENIOR CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS IRINA LYUBLINSKAYA, CUNY COLLEGE OF STATEN ISLAND GREGG WOLFE, AVONWORTH HIGH SCHOOL DOUGLAS INGRAM, TEXAS CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY L1zA PuJj1, MANUKAU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SUDHI OBEROI, RAMAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE NATHAN CZUBA, SABIO ACADEMY LE== i =m Openstax

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    OPENSTAX OpenStax provides free, peer-reviewed, openly licensed textbooks for introductory college and Advanced Placement® courses and low-cost, personalized courseware that helps students learn. A nonprofit ed tech initiative based at Rice University, we're committed to helping students access the tools they need to complete their courses and meet their educational goals. RICE UNIVERSITY OpenStax, OpenStax CNX, and OpenStax Tutor are initiatives of Rice University. As a leading research university with a distinctive commitment to undergraduate education, Rice University aspires to path-breaking research, unsurpassed teaching, and contributions to the betterment of our world. It seeks to fulfill this mission by cultivating a diverse community of learning and discovery that produces leaders across the spectrum of human endeavor. RICE PHILANTHROPIC SUPPORT OpensStax is grateful for the generous philanthropic partners who advance our mission to improve educational access and learning for everyone. To see the impact of our supporter community and our most updated list of partners, please visit openstax.org/impact. Arnold Ventures Burt and Deedee McMurtry Chan Zuckerberg Initiative Michelson 20MM Foundation Chegg, Inc. National Science Foundation Arthur and Carlyse Ciocca Charitable Foundation The Open Society Foundations Digital Promise Jumee Yhu and David E. Park III Ann and John Doerr Brian D. Patterson USA-International Foundation Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation The Bill and Stephanie Sick Fund Girard Foundation Steven L. Smith & Diana T. Go Google Inc. Stand Together The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation Robin and Sandy Stuart Foundation The Hewlett-Packard Company The Stuart Family Foundation Intel Inc. Tammy and Guillermo Trevifio Rusty and John Jaggers Valhalla Charitable Foundation The Calvin K. Kazanjian Economics Foundation White Star Education Foundation Charles Koch Foundation Schmidt Futures Leon Lowenstein Foundation, Inc. William Marsh Rice University The Maxfield Foundation

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    EE —— Preface 1 CHAPTER 1 Introduction: The Nature of Science and Physics 9 Connection for AP® Courses 9 1.1 Physics: An Introduction 10 1.2 Physical Quantities and Units 18 1.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures 26 1.4 Approximation 32 Glossary 35 Section Summary 35 Conceptual Questions 36 Problems & Exercises 36 CHAPTER 2 Kinematics 39 Connection for AP® Courses 39 2.1 Displacement 40 2.2 Vectors, Scalars, and Coordinate Systems 43 2.3 Time, Velocity, and Speed a4 2.4 Acceleration 49 2.5 Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension 60 2.6 Problem-Solving Basics for One-Dimensional Kinematics 71 2.7 Falling Objects 73 2.8 Graphical Analysis of One-Dimensional Motion 82 Glossary 90 Section Summary 90 Conceptual Questions 92 Problems & Exercises 94 Test Prep for AP® Courses 100 CHAPTER 3 Two-Dimensional Kinematics 103 Connection for AP® Courses 103 3.1 Kinematics in Two Dimensions: An Introduction 104 3.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Graphical Methods 107 3.3 Vector Addition and Subtraction: Analytical Methods 115 3.4 Projectile Motion 121 3.5 Addition of Velocities 130 Glossary 139 Section Summary 139 Conceptual Questions 141 Problems & Exercises 142 Test Prep for AP® Courses 149

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    CHAPTER 4 Dynamics: Force and Newton's Laws of Motion 153 Connection for AP® Courses 153 4.1 Development of Force Concept 157 4.2 Newton's First Law of Motion: Inertia 158 4.3 Newton's Second Law of Motion: Concept of a System 159 4.4 Newton's Third Law of Motion: Symmetry in Forces 165 4.5 Normal, Tension, and Other Examples of Forces 169 4.6 Problem-Solving Strategies 178 4.7 Further Applications of Newton's Laws of Motion 180 4.8 Extended Topic: The Four Basic Forces—An Introduction 187 Glossary 193 Section Summary 193 Conceptual Questions 195 Problems & Exercises 197 Test Prep for AP® Courses 203 CHAPTER 5 Further Applications of Newton's Laws: Friction, Drag, and Elasticity 207 Connection for AP® Courses 207 5.1 Friction 208 5.2 Drag Forces 215 5.3 Elasticity: Stress and Strain 220 Glossary 231 Section Summary 231 Conceptual Questions 232 Problems & Exercises 232 Test Prep for AP® Courses 237 CHAPTER 6 Uniform Circular Motion and Gravitation 239 Connection for AP® Courses 239 6.1 Rotation Angle and Angular Velocity 241 6.2 Centripetal Acceleration 245 6.3 Centripetal Force 249 6.4 Fictitious Forces and Non-inertial Frames: The Coriolis Force 254 6.5 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation 257 6.6 Satellites and Kepler's Laws: An Argument for Simplicity 265 Glossary 271 Section Summary 271 Conceptual Questions 272 Problems & Exercises 275 Test Prep for AP® Courses 280 CHAPTER 7 Work, Energy, and Energy Resources 281 Connection for AP® Courses 281 7.1 Work: The Scientific Definition 283

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    7.2 Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Theorem 286 7.3 Gravitational Potential Energy 291 7.4 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy 297 7.5 Nonconservative Forces 301 7.6 Conservation of Energy 306 7.7 Power 310 7.8 Work, Energy, and Power in Humans 315 7.9 World Energy Use 319 Glossary 323 Section Summary 323 Conceptual Questions 325 Problems & Exercises 326 Test Prep for AP® Courses 334 CHAPTER 8 Linear Momentum and Collisions 339 Connection for AP® courses 339 8.1 Linear Momentum and Force 340 8.2 Impulse 343 8.3 Conservation of Momentum 346 8.4 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension 350 8.5 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension 352 8.6 Collisions of Point Masses in Two Dimensions 357 8.7 Introduction to Rocket Propulsion 361 Glossary 365 Section Summary 365 Conceptual Questions 366 Problems & Exercises 367 Test Prep for AP® Courses 373 CHAPTER 9 Statics and Torque 381 Connection for AP® Courses 381 9.1 The First Condition for Equilibrium 382 9.2 The Second Condition for Equilibrium 384 9.3 Stability 388 9.4 Applications of Statics, Including Problem-Solving Strategies 393 9.5 Simple Machines 396 9.6 Forces and Torques in Muscles and Joints 400 Glossary 407 Section Summary 407 Conceptual Questions 408 Problems & Exercises 409 Test Prep for AP® Courses 414 CHAPTER 10 Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum a17 Connection for AP® Courses 417 10.1 Angular Acceleration 419

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    10.2 Kinematics of Rotational Motion 424 10.3 Dynamics of Rotational Motion: Rotational Inertia 429 10.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy: Work and Energy Revisited 434 10.5 Angular Momentum and Its Conservation 442 10.6 Collisions of Extended Bodies in Two Dimensions 448 10.7 Gyroscopic Effects: Vector Aspects of Angular Momentum 453 Glossary 456 Section Summary 456 Conceptual Questions 457 Problems & Exercises 460 Test Prep for AP® Courses 465 CHAPTER 11 Fluid Statics 469 Connection for AP® Courses 469 11.1 What Is a Fluid? 470 11.2 Density 471 11.3 Pressure 474 11.4 Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid 477 11.5 Pascal’s Principle 481 11.6 Gauge Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Pressure Measurement 484 11.7 Archimedes’ Principle 488 11.8 Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids: Surface Tension and Capillary Action 495 11.9 Pressures in the Body 504 Glossary 510 Section Summary 510 Conceptual Questions 511 Problems & Exercises 513 Test Prep for AP® Courses 519 CHAPTER 12 Fluid Dynamics and Its Biological and Medical Applications 521 Connection for AP® Courses 521 12.1 Flow Rate and Its Relation to Velocity 522 12.2 Bernoulli's Equation 525 12.3 The Most General Applications of Bernoulli's Equation 530 12.4 Viscosity and Laminar Flow; Poiseuille’s Law 533 12.5 The Onset of Turbulence 541 12.6 Motion of an Object in a Viscous Fluid 543 12.7 Molecular Transport Phenomena: Diffusion, Osmosis, and Related Processes 545 Glossary 550 Section Summary 550 Conceptual Questions 551 Problems & Exercises 554 Test Prep for AP® Courses 559

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    CHAPTER 13 Temperature, Kinetic Theory, and the Gas Laws 561 Connection for AP® Courses 561 13.1 Temperature 562 13.2 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids 570 13.3 The Ideal Gas Law 577 13.4 Kinetic Theory: Atomic and Molecular Explanation of Pressure and Temperature 584 13.5 Phase Changes 592 13.6 Humidity, Evaporation, and Boiling 596 Glossary 602 Section Summary 602 Conceptual Questions 604 Problems & Exercises 605 Test Prep for AP® Courses 609 CHAPTER 14 Heat and Heat Transfer Methods 613 Connection for AP® Courses 613 14.1 Heat 614 14.2 Temperature Change and Heat Capacity 616 14.3 Phase Change and Latent Heat 622 14.4 Heat Transfer Methods 629 14.5 Conduction 630 14.6 Convection 636 14.7 Radiation 641 Glossary 648 Section Summary 648 Conceptual Questions 649 Problems & Exercises 651 Test Prep for AP® Courses 658 CHAPTER 15 Thermodynamics 661 Connection for AP® Courses 661 15.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics 663 15.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics and Some Simple Processes 668 15.3 Introduction to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Heat Engines and Their Efficiency 676 15.4 Carnot’s Perfect Heat Engine: The Second Law of Thermodynamics Restated 683 15.5 Applications of Thermodynamics: Heat Pumps and Refrigerators 687 15.6 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Disorder and the Unavailability of Energy 692 15.7 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics: The Underlying Explanation 700 Glossary 706 Section Summary 706 Conceptual Questions 707 Problems & Exercises 710 Test Prep for AP® Courses 715

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    CHAPTER 16 Oscillatory Motion and Waves 719 Connection for AP® Courses 719 16.1 Hooke’s Law: Stress and Strain Revisited 721 16.2 Period and Frequency in Oscillations 726 16.3 Simple Harmonic Motion: A Special Periodic Motion 728 16.4 The Simple Pendulum 733 16.5 Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator 735 16.6 Uniform Circular Motion and Simple Harmonic Motion 738 16.7 Damped Harmonic Motion 741 16.8 Forced Oscillations and Resonance 745 16.9 Waves 748 16.10 Superposition and Interference 751 16.11 Energy in Waves: Intensity 757 Glossary 761 Section Summary 761 Conceptual Questions 763 Problems & Exercises 764 Test Prep for AP® Courses 769 CHAPTER 17 Physics of Hearing 773 Connection for AP® Courses 773 17.1 Sound 774 17.2 Speed of Sound, Frequency, and Wavelength 776 17.3 Sound Intensity and Sound Level 781 17.4 Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms 786 17.5 Sound Interference and Resonance: Standing Waves in Air Columns 791 17.6 Hearing 798 17.7 Ultrasound 805 Glossary 814 Section Summary 814 Conceptual Questions 815 Problems & Exercises 816 Test Prep for AP® Courses 821 CHAPTER 18 Electric Charge and Electric Field 825 Connection for AP® Courses 825 18.1 Static Electricity and Charge: Conservation of Charge 829 18.2 Conductors and Insulators 834 18.3 Conductors and Electric Fields in Static Equilibrium 837 18.4 Coulomb’s Law 842 18.5 Electric Field: Concept of a Field Revisited 844 18.6 Electric Field Lines: Multiple Charges 846 18.7 Electric Forces in Biology 850 18.8 Applications of Electrostatics 851 Glossary 858 Section Summary 859

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    Conceptual Questions 860 Problems & Exercises 863 Test Prep for AP® Courses 869 CHAPTER 19 Electric Potential and Electric Field 875 Connection for AP® Courses 875 19.1 Electric Potential Energy: Potential Difference 877 19.2 Electric Potential in a Uniform Electric Field 883 19.3 Electrical Potential Due to a Point Charge 887 19.4 Equipotential Lines 889 19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics 892 19.6 Capacitors in Series and Parallel 900 19.7 Energy Stored in Capacitors 904 Glossary 907 Section Summary 907 Conceptual Questions 908 Problems & Exercises 909 Test Prep for AP® Courses 914 CHAPTER 20 Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law 919 Connection for AP® Courses 919 20.1 Current 921 20.2 Ohm's Law: Resistance and Simple Circuits 927 20.3 Resistance and Resistivity 930 20.4 Electric Power and Energy 935 20.5 Alternating Current versus Direct Current 939 20.6 Electric Hazards and the Human Body 944 20.7 Nerve Conduction—Electrocardiograms 949 Glossary 957 Section Summary 957 Conceptual Questions 958 Problems & Exercises 960 Test Prep for AP® Courses 966 CHAPTER 21 Circuits and DC Instruments 969 Connection for AP® Courses 969 21.1 Resistors in Series and Parallel 970 21.2 Electromotive Force: Terminal Voltage 980 21.3 Kirchhoff’s Rules 988 21.4 DC Voltmeters and Ammeters 994 21.5 Null Measurements 998 21.6 DC Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors 1001 Glossary 1007 Section Summary 1008 Conceptual Questions 1009 Problems & Exercises 1012

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    Test Prep for AP® Courses 1018 CHAPTER 22 Magnetism 1023 Connection for AP® Courses 1023 22.1 Magnets 1025 22.2 Ferromagnets and Electromagnets 1027 22.3 Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Lines 1031 22.4 Magnetic Field Strength: Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field 1032 22.5 Force on a Moving Charge in a Magnetic Field: Examples and Applications 1035 22.6 The Hall Effect 1039 22.7 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor 1042 22.8 Torque on a Current Loop: Motors and Meters 1044 22.9 Magnetic Fields Produced by Currents: Ampere’s Law 1048 22.10 Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Conductors 1052 22.11 More Applications of Magnetism 1054 Glossary 1059 Section Summary 1060 Conceptual Questions 1061 Problems & Exercises 1064 Test Prep for AP® Courses 1071 CHAPTER 23 Electromagnetic Induction, AC Circuits, and Electrical Technologies 1075 Connection for AP® Courses 1075 23.1 Induced Emf and Magnetic Flux 1077 23.2 Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz's Law 1079 23.3 Motional Emf 1082 23.4 Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping 1085 23.5 Electric Generators 1089 23.6 Back Emf 1093 23.7 Transformers 1094 23.8 Electrical Safety: Systems and Devices 1099 23.9 Inductance 1103 23.10 RL Circuits 1108 23.11 Reactance, Inductive and Capacitive 1110 23.12 RLC Series AC Circuits 1114 Glossary 1121 Section Summary 1121 Conceptual Questions 1123 Problems & Exercises 1125 Test Prep for AP® Courses 1133 CHAPTER 24 Electromagnetic Waves 1135 Connection for AP® Courses 1135 24.1 Maxwell's Equations: Electromagnetic Waves Predicted and Observed 1137 24.2 Production of Electromagnetic Waves 1140

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    24.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 1143 24.4 Energy in Electromagnetic Waves 1159 Glossary 1162 Section Summary 1163 Conceptual Questions 1164 Problems & Exercises 1165 Test Prep for AP® Courses 1169 CHAPTER 25 Geometric Optics 1171 Connection for AP® Courses 1171 25.1 The Ray Aspect of Light 1172 25.2 The Law of Reflection 1173 25.3 The Law of Refraction 1176 25.4 Total Internal Reflection 1182 25.5 Dispersion: The Rainbow and Prisms 1188 25.6 Image Formation by Lenses 1192 25.7 Image Formation by Mirrors 1206 Glossary 1215 Section Summary 1215 Conceptual Questions 1216 Problems & Exercises 1218 Test Prep for AP® Courses 1223 CHAPTER 26 Vision and Optical Instruments 1227 Connection for AP® Courses 1227 26.1 Physics of the Eye 1228 26.2 Vision Correction 1233 26.3 Color and Color Vision 1238 26.4 Microscopes 1242 26.5 Telescopes 1249 26.6 Aberrations 1253 Glossary 1256 Section Summary 1256 Conceptual Questions 1257 Problems & Exercises 1258 Test Prep for AP® Courses 1261 CHAPTER 27 Wave Optics 1263 Connection for AP® Courses 1263 27.1 The Wave Aspect of Light: Interference 1265 27.2 Huygens's Principle: Diffraction 1266 27.3 Young's Double Slit Experiment 1269 27.4 Multiple Slit Diffraction 1273 27.5 Single Slit Diffraction 1277 27.6 Limits of Resolution: The Rayleigh Criterion 1281 27.7 Thin Film Interference 1286

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