Developmental Psychology - Physical, Cognitive Development Age 0–2 | Psychology

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Study GuideDevelopmental Psychology–Physical, CognitiveDevelopment:Age 0–21.Cognitive Development: Age 0–2During the first two years of life, babies experience rapid cognitive growth. Much of what we knowabout early thinking comes from the work ofJean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist. In the 1920s, Piagetnoticed that children think and understand the world differently at different ages.Piaget believed that children move through a series ofcognitive development stages, much likephysical growth stages. While children may move through these stages at different speeds, Piagetargued that all children—boys and girls—go through the same stages in the same order.1.1 The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to Age 2)The first stage of Piaget’s theory is called thesensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to aboutage two. During this stage, infants learn throughdirect interactionwith the world. They learn bylooking, listening, touching, grasping, and sucking.At first, babies react to the world automatically. Over time, they begin to understand thattheir actionscause things to happen. For example, a baby may learn that shaking a rattle makes noise. This isthe beginning of understandingcause and effect.1.2 The Six Substages of the Sensorimotor PeriodPiaget divided the sensorimotor stage intosix smaller substages:Stage 1: Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month)Newborns rely entirely on reflexes, such as sucking and grasping. Their thinking abilities are verylimited at this point.Stage 2: Primary Circular Reactions (1 to 4 Months)Infants accidentally perform actions that feel good, such as sucking on a pacifier. When they like theresult, they repeat the action.

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Study GuideStage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions (4 to 8 Months)Babies begin to explore how their actions affect the environment. For example, they may repeatedlyshake a toy to hear the sound it makes.Stage 4: Coordination of Reactions (8 to 12 Months)Infants now performgoal-directed behaviors. They intentionally take steps to reach a goal, such ascrawling to grab a toy.Around this time,object permanencebegins to develop. Object permanence is the understandingthat objects still exist even when they are out of sight. Babies may start looking for a toy that has beenhidden.Stage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 to 18 Months)Toddlers experiment with cause and effect in new ways. They intentionally change their actions to seedifferent results, such as waving to make a parent smile.Stage 6: Mental Representation (18 to 24 Months)Toddlers begin to usesymbolsand mental images. This is calledrepresentational (symbolic)thought. For example, they use words like “dog,” “milk,” “mama,” or “papa” to stand for real objects orpeople.1.3 Schemas: Building Blocks of ThinkingPiaget called basic mental structuresschemas. In infancy, schemas help organize sensory and motorexperiences. Reflexes form the earliest schemas, which later become more complex.For example, a baby who repeatedly sees and touches a rattle eventually forms a mental image of it.This mental representation allows the child to recognize the rattle later, even when it is not beingtouched.1.4 How Cognitive Development Happens: Adaptation and EquilibriumPiaget believed cognitive growth occurs through two main processes:adaptationandequilibrium.AdaptationAdaptation is how children adjust their thinking to fit new experiences. It includes two parts:•Assimilation: Using existing ideas to understand something new.

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Study GuideExample: A child calling a whale a fish because it lives in the ocean.•Accommodation: Changing existing ideas when new information does not fit.Example: Learning that whales are mammals, not fish.EquilibriumEquilibriumis the search for balance between what a child knows and what they experience. Whenchildren realize their understanding does not match reality, they adjust their thinking. This processhelps children move forward in development and make better decisions.1.5 Evaluating Piaget’s TheoryMost psychologists today agree with Piaget’s main idea:new thinking skills build on earlier ones.Researchers also support his view that infants and toddlers are active learners who explore theirworld on purpose.However, Piaget’s theory has also been criticized. Researchers such as Robbie Case, Pierr Dasen,Kurt Fischer, and Elizabeth Spelke argue that development is not as neatly divided into stages asPiaget suggested. Children may move through stages differently or in a different order. Piaget calledthis variationdecalage, but he did not fully explain it.Critics also believe Piaget underestimated young children. Research shows that toddlers andpreschoolers can show empathy, use logic, and understand others’ perspectives earlier than Piagetthought.Cognitive development is also influenced bysocial and cultural environments. Children in enrichedenvironments often have more opportunities to develop cognitive skills than children in deprivedenvironments.1.6 Early Understanding and SymbolsStudies suggest that infants understand more than once believed. Even bythree months, babiesshow awareness of how the physical world works. They pay extra attention to events that seemimpossible, such as objects floating or passing through walls. This shows early symbolic and logicalthinking.

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Study Guide1.7 Memory DevelopmentMemory plays a major role in early cognitive development.Memoryis the ability to encode (take in),store, and recall information.Researchers describe three types of memory:•Sensory memory(less than 1 second)•Short-term memory(less than 30 seconds)•Long-term memory(can last indefinitely)Babies begin forminglong-term memories during the first six months. They may recognizecaregivers and familiar places. These early memories help children form categories and understandthe world more clearly.1.8 Language Development in the First Two YearsLanguage development begins early and is closely tied to cognitive growth.Psycholinguists, whostudy language development, believe language depends on a child’s ability to use symbols.As the brain develops, children gainrepresentational thinking, which supports language learning.Learning language is also influenced byimitationandreinforcement. Children copy the speech ofcaregivers, and caregivers respond, encouraging further communication.Psycholinguists study three parts of language:•Content: What is meant•Form: What is said•Use: How and to whom it is saidLinguistNoam Chomskyproposed that humans are born with an innate ability to learn language,called thelanguage acquisition device.Language learning also happens within asocial and cultural context. Family members, peers,teachers, and media all shape how children learn to communicate and understand the world.

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