Developmental Psychology - Psychosocial Development Age 0–2 | Psychology

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Study GuideDevelopmental Psychology–Psychosocial DevelopmentAge:0–21. Family Relationships: Age 0–2A baby’s very first relationships are usually withfamily members, especially parents or primarycaregivers. From the start, infants and caregivers share emotions with each other—smiling, crying,calming, and responding. These early emotional connections are extremely important.If thesocial and emotional bondbetween a baby and their family is weak or inconsistent, the childmay have trouble developingtrust, self-control, and emotional understandinglater in life.Research shows that the quality of the parent–child relationship—especially between6 and 18months of age—strongly influences the quality of the child’s future relationships.1.1 The Importance of Early Physical ContactPhysical contact plays a major role in a baby’s emotional health. Because touch is so important forboth infants and parents, experts recommend thatphysical contact begin as soon as possibleafter birth.Babies who receive immediate contact with their mothers tend to:•Cry less•Appear happier•Feel more secureThat said, early bonding isideal but not requiredfor healthy development. Babies who areseparated from their parents at birth are not automatically at risk for emotional problems. With latercare, love, and attention, parents and infants can still form strong bonds.1.2 What Is Attachment?Attachmentis the emotional process in which one person seeks closeness to another. In parent–child relationships, attachment is usuallymutual and reciprocal.

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Study GuideFor example:•The baby looks and smiles at the parent•The parent looks and smiles backEven though this communication is simple, it is very powerful. PsychologistJohn Bowlbybelievedthat babies are born with behaviors that encourage attachment. Crying, smiling, clinging, and cooingare natural signals that prompt parents to feed, hold, comfort, and talk to their child.Parents help build trust by responding to these signals.Eye contact, gentle touch, and timelyfeedingare especially important. These actions also express love and care.1.3 Separation and Stranger AnxietyWhile attachment is essential,separation and lossare also part of human relationships. Over time,children must learn that relationships can change, even though this is difficult.Between7 and 24 months, many children experience:•Separation anxiety: distress when left alone or in an unfamiliar place•Stranger anxiety: distress around unfamiliar peopleThese reactions are actually healthy signs of attachment. They show that children can tell thedifference between familiar and unfamiliar people. Children who lack multiple attachments(relationships beyond the primary caregiver) may show stronger separation and stranger anxieties.1.4 Bowlby’s Stages of SeparationAccording to Bowlby, children who are separated from their parents often go throughthree stages:1.Protest–The child cries and resists the separation2.Despair–The child becomes sad and withdrawn3.Detachment–The child begins to accept the separation and respond to new caregiversThese stages show how deeply attachment affects a child’s emotions and behavior.

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Study Guide1.5 Effects of Social DeprivationSocial deprivationoccurs when children lack stable, close attachments. This can have seriousnegative effects.Children who grow up in institutions or settings without consistent caregivers often show:•Depression•Withdrawal•Apathy•High levels of anxietyThese outcomes highlight how critical early relationships are for healthy emotional development.1.6 Parenting and Cultural InfluencesParenting practices are shaped byculture, community values, social environment, and children’sbehavior. As a result, parents may raise their children differently. Differences can be seen in howparents communicate, discipline, or decide whether to use daycare.What matters most is that caregivers are generallyresponsive. Playing, talking, feeding, andtouching help support healthy emotional development. Children who form secure attachments usuallyhave caregivers who respond consistently to their needs.1.7 Responsiveness and AttachmentBeing responsive does not mean responding toeverythinga baby does. Children also need to learnthat not every need can be met instantly.Most caregivers respond to their infantsmost of the time, but not 100 percent of the time—and thatis healthy. Problems tend to arise when caregivers respondless than 25 percent of the time.Children of very unresponsive caregivers are more likely to developinsecure attachments, whichmay lead to overdependence on or rejection of authority figures later in life.

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Study Guide1.8 Mutual Interaction and CommunicationStrong communication builds strong relationships.Mutuality, also calledsynchronous interaction,is especially important in the early months.Mutual behaviors include:•Taking turns interacting•Looking and touching•“Talking” back and forthSometimes infants become overstimulated and resist interaction. They may turn away, close theireyes, squirm, or cry. These signals tell caregivers the baby needs a break.During the second year, mutual behaviors such as turn-taking, imitation, and sharing predict laterprosocial behaviors, including cooperation and empathy. Children also begin learning social rules—how to invite others to play, follow rules, and share toys.1.9 Daycare and Early SocializationMany parents worry about placing infants and toddlers indaycare or preschool. Research showsthat children who attend daycare arenot disadvantagedin emotional, social, or cognitivedevelopment.In fact, quality daycare settings can offer:•Rich social experiences•Structured interaction with other children•Exposure to diverse peersExperts suggest that daycare combined withquality time at homecan promote early and healthysocial development.2.Sexuality: Age 0–2When people hear the wordsexuality, they often think of teenagers or adults. Many adults associateyouth sexuality with problems such as sexually transmitted diseases or teenage pregnancy. Becauseof this, most people donotthink of infants and toddlers as sexual beings.

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