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Developmental Psychology - Psychosocial Development Age 0–2

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    Study Guide Developmental Psychology – Psychosocial Development Age : 0 – 2 1. Family Relationships: Age 0 – 2 A baby’s very first relationships are usually with family members , especially parents or primary caregivers. From the start, infants and caregivers share emotions with each other — smiling, crying, calming, and responding. These early emotional connections are extremely important. If the social and emotional bond between a baby and their family is weak or inconsistent, the child may have trouble developing trust, self - control, and emotional understanding later in life. Research shows that the quality of the parent – child relationship — especially between 6 and 18 months of age — strongly influences the quality of the child’s future relationships. 1.1 The Importance of Early Physical Contact Physical contact plays a major role in a baby’s emotional health. Because touch is so important for both infants and parents, experts recommend that physical contact begin as soon as possible after birth . Babies who receive immediate contact with their mothers tend to: • Cry less • Appear happier • Feel more secure That said, early bonding is ideal but not required for healthy development. Babies who are separated from their parents at birth are not automatically at risk for emotional problems. With later care, love, and attention, parents and infants can still form strong bonds. 1.2 What Is Attachment? Attachment is the emotional process in which one person seeks closeness to another. In parent – child relationships, attachment is usually mutual and reciprocal .

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    Study Guide For example: • The baby looks and smiles at the parent • The parent looks and smiles back Even though this communication is simple, it is very powerful. Psychologist John Bowlby believed that babies are born with behaviors that encourage attachment. Crying, smiling, clinging, and cooing are natural signals that prompt parents to feed, hold, comfort, and talk to their child. Parents help build trust by responding to these signals. Eye contact, gentle touch, and timely feeding are especially important. These actions also express love and care. 1.3 Separation and Stranger Anxiety While attachment is essential, separation and loss are also part of human relationships. Over time, children must learn that relationships can change, even though this is difficult. Between 7 and 24 months , many children experience: • Separation anxiety : distress when left alone or in an unfamiliar place • Stranger anxiety : distress around unfamiliar people These reactions are actually healthy signs of attachment. They show that children can tell the difference between familiar and unfamiliar people. Children who lack multiple attachments (relationships beyond the primary caregiver) may show stronger separati on and stranger anxieties. 1.4 Bowlby’s Stages of Separation According to Bowlby, children who are separated from their parents often go through three stages : 1. Protest – The child cries and resists the separation 2. Despair – The child becomes sad and withdrawn 3. Detachment – The child begins to accept the separation and respond to new caregivers These stages show how deeply attachment affects a child’s emotions and behavior.

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    Study Guide 1.5 Effects of Social Deprivation Social deprivation occurs when children lack stable, close attachments. This can have serious negative effects. Children who grow up in institutions or settings without consistent caregivers often show: • Depression • Withdrawal • Apathy • High levels of anxiety These outcomes highlight how critical early relationships are for healthy emotional development. 1.6 Parenting and Cultural Influences Parenting practices are shaped by culture, community values, social environment, and children’s behavior . As a result, parents may raise their children differently. Differences can be seen in how parents communicate, discipline, or decide whether to use daycare. What matters most is that caregivers are generally responsive . Playing, talking, feeding, and touching help support healthy emotional development. Children who form secure attachments usually have caregivers who respond consistently to their needs. 1.7 Responsiveness and Attachment Being responsive does not mean responding to everything a baby does. Children also need to learn that not every need can be met instantly. Most caregivers respond to their infants most of the time , but not 100 percent of the time — and that is healthy. Problems tend to arise when caregivers respond less than 25 percent of the time . Children of very unresponsive caregivers are more likely to develop insecure attachments , which may lead to overdependence on or rejection of authority figures later in life.

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    Study Guide 1.8 Mutual Interaction and Communication Strong communication builds strong relationships. Mutuality , also called synchronous interaction , is especially important in the early months. Mutual behaviors include: • Taking turns interacting • Looking and touching • “Talking” back and forth Sometimes infants become overstimulated and resist interaction. They may turn away, close their eyes, squirm, or cry. These signals tell caregivers the baby needs a break. During the second year, mutual behaviors such as turn - taking, imitation, and sharing predict later prosocial behaviors , including cooperation and empathy. Children also begin learning social rules — how to invite others to play, follow rules, and share toys. 1.9 Daycare and Early Socialization Many parents worry about placing infants and toddlers in daycare or preschool . Research shows that children who attend daycare are not disadvantaged in emotional, social, or cognitive development. In fact, quality daycare settings can offer: • Rich social experiences • Structured interaction with other children • Exposure to diverse peers Experts suggest that daycare combined with quality time at home can promote early and healthy social development. 2. Sexuality: Age 0 – 2 When people hear the word sexuality , they often think of teenagers or adults. Many adults associate youth sexuality with problems such as sexually transmitted diseases or teenage pregnancy. Because of this, most people do not think of infants and toddlers as sexual beings.

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