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Class Notes for Exploring Research, 9th Edition

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    i INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL E XPLORING R ESEARCH NINTH E DITION Neil J. Salkind University of Kans as

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    iii Table of Contents Chapter 1: The Role and Importance of Research Page 1 Chapter 2: The Research Process: Coming to Terms Page 14 Chapter 3A: Selecting a Problem and Reviewing the Research Page 27 Chapter 3B: The Importance of Practicing Ethics in Research Page 40 Chapter 4: Sampling and Generalizability Page 53 Chapter 5: Measurement, Reliability and Validity Page 65 Chapter 6: Methods of Measuring Behavior Page 79 Chapter 7: Data Collection and Descriptive Statistics Page 91 Chapter 8: Introducing Inferential Statistics Page 104 Chapter 9: Non - experimental Research: Descriptive and Correlational Methods Page 117 Chapter 10: Non - experimental Research: Qualitative Methods Page 129 Chapter 11: Pre - and True Experimental Research Methods Page 141 Chapter 12: Quasi - Experimental Research: A Close Cousin to Experimental Research Page 155 Chapter 13: Writing a Research Proposal Page 168 Chapter 14: Writing a Research Manuscript Page 180

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    1 Say Hello to Research! Chapter 1 . The Role and Importance of Research CHAPTER OVERVIEW The purpose of this chapte r is to provide students with a basic introduction to the field of research by describing the scientific method and the types of research designs most often employed in the social and behavioral sciences . The overall goal is to provide an overview to help students identify what research is and isn’t, what the purpose of research is , and some of the different ways to carry it out . OBJECTIVES At the conclusion of this chapter , students should be able to: • Outline an overview of the research process. • Report the many different attributes of high - quality research work • Examine the steps of a simple model of the scientific research process • Distinguish between the three primary dimensions in which research methods differ • Illustrate a research design cheat sheet • Analyze whether there is any distinction between basic research and applied research CHAPTER OUTLINE I. The Role and Importance of Research II. Say Hello to Research! III. What Research Is and What It Isn’t IV. A Model of Scientific Inquiry A. Asking the question B. Identifying the important factors C. Formulating a hypothesis D. Collecting relevant information E. Testing the hypothesis F. Working with the hypothesis G. Reconsidering the theory H. Asking new questions V. Different Types of Research A. Non experimental 1) Descriptive 2) Correlational 3) Qualitative B. Experimental

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    2 C. True E xperimental Research D. Quasi - experimental Research VI. What Research Method to Use When VII. Basic Research Versus Applied Research VIII. The Role and Importance of Research SAMPLE STUDY GUIDE IMPORTANT TERMS 1. Theory 2. Research 3. Scientific method 4. Hypothesis 5. Chance 6. Nonexperime ntal research 7. Descriptive research 8. Qualitative research 9. Correlational research 10. Experimental research 11. Quasi - experimental research 12. Basic research 13. Applied research IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 1. List and discuss eight attributes of high quality research . 2. Why do we use the scientific method ? 3. Describe eight steps of the research process. 4. List three types of nonexperimental research described in the text. 5. Describe how experimental and quasi - experimental designs differ and how they are the same. 6. Describe the difference between basic and applied research. LECTURE & DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. According to the text, scientific inquiry follows a cycli cal process that begins with a question and ends with asking new questions . Explain the process of scientific inquiry by describing each of the steps involved. 2. Although a true experimental design is often thought to be the best when it comes to examining difference s between groups, w hen might a quasi - experimental design be more appropriate than a true experiment al design?

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    3 3. Correlational, descriptive, and historical research are classified under one category know n as n on experimental research . Explain how these types of research are the same and how they are different. CLASS ACTIVIT I ES 1. To introduce the steps in the res earch process , you may choose to reference Figure 1.1 in the text , which will provide students with a visual representation of the cyclical processes that define research . 2. While discussing Figure 1.1, pose a variety of good and obviously bad research questions . Discuss what makes questions good or bad and how the bad ones can be improved . Do the same with hypotheses. 3. Prepare an example research study and walk through the steps in the research process that are outlined in Figure 1.1 . For example, how do voters decide who to vote for in a primary election? Does the use of calculators in mathematics classrooms slow fourth graders’ mastery of the times tables? Then h ave the students identify a research question, identify the important factors, formulate a hypothesis, identify the relevant information, and so on while you are in class so that they can practice the procedure and you can discuss it together. 4. Assign students to small groups and have each group provide an example and show how the steps of the research process apply to it . Discuss the examples in class. 5. Table 1.1 in the text can be used to elicit responses from students to the following question: What is the difference between experimental research and n o n experimental r esearch? 6. H ave students generate a research question of interest that pertain s to their field of study. Referring to F igure 1.2 in the text , walk them through the process of determining whether or the not the question they have posed will lead them to an experimental or nonexperimental research design . This is a great way to get students thinking about formulating a hypothesis, wh ich will be discussed in further detail in Chapter 2. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Johnston M.V., Ottenbacher K.J., Reichardt, C.S. (1995). Strong quasi - experimental designs for r esearch on the effectiveness of rehabilitation. American Journal of Physical and Medical Rehabilitation . Leedy, P.D. & Ormrod, J.E. (1997) . Practical Research : Planning and Design . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997 . Harding, J., Wacker, D.P., Cooper, L.J., Asmus, J., Jensen - Kovalan, P. & Grisolano, L.A. (1999) . Combining descriptive and experimental analyses of young children with behavior problems in preschool settings. Behavior Modification 23(2) , 316 - 33. Flor (1991). An introduction to research and evaluation practice. Journal of Experimental Education 14(1). Peshkin, A. (1993). The goodness of qualitative research. Educational Researcher 22(2) , 23 - 29.

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    14 Chapter 2. The Research Process: Coming to Terms CHAPTER OVERVIEW The purpose of this chapter is to engage students in formulating research questions that seek to find solutions . Students will learn some of the basic terms and concepts associated with the research process, such as research methods, types of variables, hypotheses, the sample versus the population, and the concept of significance. OBJECTIVES At the conclusion of this chapter, students should be able to: • Examine a psychological research study that tries to understand the impact of maternal employment on adolescent development • Recognize new words and phrases that form the basis for much of the communication in research • Examine dependent variables, independent variables and the relationship between them • Recognize variables that a beginning producer of research needs to know in order to have a good foundation • Examine the null hypothesis, the research hypothesis and their differences • Report the concept of generalizability of research work with respect to selecting a sample from a population that most closely matches the population characteristics • Analyze the concept of statistical significance to measure the amount of risk we are willing to take when reaching a conclusion about variable - relationships CHAPTER OUTLINE I. The Research Process: Coming to Terms II. From Problem to Solution III. The Language of Research IV. All About Variables A. Dependent Variables B. Independent Variables C. The Relationship between Independent and Dependent Variables V. Other Important Types of Variables VI. Hypotheses A. The Null Hypothesis B. The Research Hypothesis 1) The Nondirectional Research Hypothesis 2) The Directional Research Hypothesis C. Differences Between the Null Hypothesis and the Research Hypothesis D. What Makes a “Good” Hypothesis?

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    15 VII. Samples and Populations VIII. The Concept of Significance IX. The Research Process: Coming to Terms IMPORTANT TERMS 1. Variable 2. Measurement 3. Dependent v ariable 4. Independent v ariable 5. Control v ariable 6. Extraneous v ariable 7. Moderator v ariable 8. Treatment v ariable 9. Factorial design 10. Confounding 11. Null h ypothesis 12. Chance 13. Research h ypothesis 14. Directional research h ypothesis 15. Nondirectional research h ypothesis 16. Population 17. Sample 18. Statistical significance 19. Significance level LECTURE & DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. According to the text, independent variables should be independent of one another . Why is this an important part of examining the relationship between independent and dependent variables ? Provide an example of how independent variables that are related may confound research findings. 2. Discuss the characteristics of a good research hypothesis . What distinguishes a null hypothesis from a research hypothesis ? How would you explain the difference between nondirectional research and directional research hypothes e s? 3. Why is it impossible for researchers to be 100 % confident that the differences found between groups in a study were due to the hypothesized reason ? How might a good scientist go about reducing the risk that some other competing reason (other than the variables of interest) is influencing the variables in a study? CLASS ACTIVIT I ES 1. When introducing the different types of variables , you may choose to reference Table 2.1 in the text, which will provide students with definitions of dependent, independent,

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    16 control, extraneous, and moderator variables . In addition, this table will introduce students to other terms often associated with these types of variables . 2. To illustrate the concept of factorial designs, refer to Figure 2.2 and discuss the differences between factors and levels of each factor . Have students generate their own factorial designs by drawing an experimental design that has at least three independent variables (i.e. , factors) with 2 to 3 levels each . Be sure to have them also indicate the dependent variable of interest . This makes for a great quiz item! ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Nickerson, R.S. (2000). Null hypothesis significance testing : a review of an old and continuing controversy. Psychological Methods, 5(2) , 241 - 301. Raktoe, B.L., Hedyat, A., & Federer, W.T. (1981). Factorial Designs , New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 2001. Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R.E. (2000) . Influence of deviant friends on delinquency: Searching for moderator variables. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 28 (4) , 313 - 325. Corina, J.M & Dunlap, W.P. (1997). On the logic and purpose of significance testing. Psychological Methods 2(2) , 161 - 172. Daniel, L.G. (1998). Statistical significance testing: A historical overview of misuse and misinterpretation with implications for the editorial policies and educational journals. Research in the School 5(2) , 23 - 32.

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    27 Chapter 3A . Selecting a Problem and Reviewing the Research CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter begins with some pointers on selecting a problem worth studying, which includes defining your interests, then taking your ideas, developing research questions, and then a hypothesis. Then the focus moves to a description of the tools and the steps involved in preparing a literature review. OBJECTIVES • Outline the reasons as to why the selection of the area in which to work on is extremely important • Analyze the different sources that can lead to ideas for research • List possible research topics • Recall the logical progression in research from idea to question and finally to hypothesis • Examine three types of sources that are consulted during the review of research literature • Analyze the importance of a good research article in helping being familiar with existing research on the same topic • Recognize how various forms of electronic tools help in research activities • Report the multiple ways in which the internet helps research • Summarize writing hints with respect to literature review CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Selecting a Problem and Reviewing the Research II. Selecting a Problem III. Defining Your Interests IV. Ideas, Ideas, Ideas (and What to Do with Them) V. From Idea to Research Question to Hypothesis VI. Reviewing the Literature A. Using General Sources B. Using Secondary Sources 1) Reviews and Syntheses of Literature C. Using Primary Sources 1) Journals 2) Abstracts 3) Indices VII. Reading and Evaluating Research A. What Does a Research Article Look Like? B. Criteria for Judging a Research Study VIII. Using Electronic Tools in Your Research Activities A. Searching Online

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    28 1) The Value of Online Searches B. The Great Search Engines C. Using Boolean Operators in a Search 1) Using AND 2) Using NOT 3) Using OR 4) Using * D. More About Google 1) Word Order and Repetition 2) Using the Phonebook 3) Looking for Articles Online 4) Finding Tons of Directories and Lists 5) More About Google Than You Can Imagine 6) Advanced Google Search Tools IX. Using the Internet: Beyond Searchers A. Research Activities and the Internet B. A Bit About E - mail 1) How to Be a Good e - mail Citizen C. An Introduction to News Groups and RSS Feeds 2) What’s in the News D. And, Just a Bit about Web Sites E. Using Social Media in Research F. Using Facebook as a Research Tool G. Using Twitter as a Research Tool H. And Here’s the Small Print X. Writing the Literature Review XI. Selecting a Problem and Reviewing the Research ____________________________________________________________________ SAMPLE STUDY GUIDE IMPORTANT TERMS General s ources Secondary s ources Primary s ources Peer r eview Blind Abstract Indices Search e ngines Meta - search engines Bibliographic d atabase p rogram Electronic m ail Electronic newsg roups Social media

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    29 Facebook Twitter IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 1) Discuss how to develop an idea into a research question. 2) Develop a research hypothesis. 3) Define the three types of sources typically consulted when conducting a literature review (i.e. , general, primary, secondary). 4) Discuss how to use general, primary , and secondary sources. 5) Define terms related to a literature review. 6) Summarize how to use sources such as reviews and journals to conduct a literature review. 7) Describe how scholarly journals work, including the criteria for judging a research study. 8) Define electronic tools available via the internet and discuss their uses. 9) Discuss how to use a bibliographic database program. 10) Demonstrate how to write a literature review. 11) Discuss how researchers might use social media in their studies. LECTURE & DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the different types of sources (i.e. , general, primary, and secondary ) . What are the differences among these sources ? Why is it important that researchers utilize primary sources when conducting a thorough review of the literature ? 2. When examining a research article, what are some basic questions a researcher will want to ask in order to determine the quality of the article? 3. What value do computers provide researchers when conducting a review of the l iterature ? W hat concerns might there be about the use of electronic resources? 4. How can e - mail and social media be used to enhance research? CLASS ACTIVITES 1. Bring to class an electronic version of a literature review to project as well as paper copies to hand out to students . Walk through the various components identified in the chapter and ask students questions identifying terms and resources used. 2. Arrange a session with your school librarian — most are eager to meet with students to demonstrate the library’s literature review resources and many are equipped to provide the students with a hands - on online review of the resources . Of course, timing is crucial to student interest in this topic, so don’t make it too far in advance of their test or literature review assignment!

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    30 3. Use Table 3A.1 to discuss stating research questions and developing hypotheses . Have students work in groups to develop a research question and a hypothesis . Discuss these with the class. 4. Us e Table 3 A .2 in the text to facilitate discussion of the three types of sources available to researchers . Have students discuss why primary resources are the “meat and potatoes” of the literature review . If there is a computer and link to your library and/or the web available you could demonstrate using the library’s indices and abstracts as well as web resources in class and invite students to callout next steps, etc. 5. Request that students bring a copy of a research article to class, or provide the class with a copy of a research article and have them judge the quality of the article based on their review of the following components of the article: 1) previous research, 2) problem and purpose, 3) hypothesis, 4) method, 5) sample, 6) results and discussion, 7) refe rences, and 8) general comments/ opinions about the article. 6. Spend a portion of the class period in a computer lab so that students can explore the various search engines discussed in the chapter . Students should choose a re search topic of interest and u t ilize at least three online search engines to obtain information , such as online articles and/or abstracts about the ir particular topic. 7. Use the computer lab to allow students to practice using the online bibliographic resources while you are available to answer questions.

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    40 Chapter 3B . The Importance of Practicing Ethics in Research CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter discusses the importance of ethics in research by first going through a history of ethical lapses, before moving on to how to conduct ethical research, and finally how to ensure high ethical standards. OBJECTIVES At the conclusion of this chapter, students should be able to: • Give the timeline of the history and issues of ethical research since the 1930s • Outline the basic ethical principles that are applicable to all research disciplines • Recognize ethical standards of research as applicable to different research disciplines CHAPTER OUTLINE I. The Importance of Practicing Ethics in Research II. A Bit of History III. Basic Principles of Ethical Research A. Protection from Harm B. Maintenance of Privacy C. Coercion D. Informed Consent a. Informed Consent with Children E. Confidentiality F. Debriefing G. Sharing Benefits IV. Ensuring High Ethical Standards A. The Role of Professional Organizations B. A Summary of Ethical Guidelines C. Ethics and Children D. Ethics Regarding Online Research V. The Importance of Practicing Ethics in Research IMPORTANT TERMS 1. Protection from h arm 2. Confidentiality 3. Anonymity 4. Coercion 5. Informed c onsent

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    41 6. Debrief ing 7. Sharing b enefits 8. Institutional r eview b oard IMPORTANT CONCEPTS 1. Summarize why it is important to practice ethical behavior when pursuing research. 2. Describe the basic principles of ethical research. 3. Distinguish between ethical and unethical research practices, citing examples of each. 4. Summarize the role of professional organizations in providing ethical guidelines. LECTURE & DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. According to the text, what are the basic principles of ethical research ? Why is it important that researchers follow the ethics established by their respective professional groups ? How might participants be harmed if ethical procedures are not followed ? What are some ways to ensure high ethical standard s ? CLASS ACTIVIT I ES 1. Divide students into groups and have each group select one of the items listed in “A Bit of History” and prepare a brief presentation to the class . Follow this with discussion about what ethical principles were violated in the cited studies and what has been done to address them based on the reports and guidelines noted in this section of the text . Is there more that should be done? 2. Provide students with copies of informed consent letters used by colleagu es and have students identify the components present as well as what should be included in an informed consent letter . 3. Come to class with a few ideas for unethical research projects . Discuss the research designs with the students and ask them which ethical principles are violated and how the ethical concerns might be remedied, if possible . 4. Spend a portion of the class period in a computer lab to visit some of the professional organization websites so that you can review with students the guidelines of professional organizations of interest . Have students work in groups to present overviews of the guidelines of several professional organizations . Discuss similarities and differences. 5. Have students research your school’s research review process and outline the steps that are needed and the likely timeframes for review . Have students write a sample proposal (ethical or unethical) and simulate submitting it for review . Have them discuss whether their “research project” will be approved or not and why . If you are so inclined, several students could act as the “review board” while others present their research project proposals.

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    42 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Sales, B.D. & Folkman S. (2000) . Ethics in R esearch with Human P articipants . Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association , 2000. Faden, R.R. & Beauchamp, T.L. (1986). A H istory and Theory of Informed C onsent. New York, NY: Oxford Press, 1986. AERA (2000). Ethical Standards of the American Educational Research Association . American Educational Research Association, retrieved January 16, 2005 . http://www.aera.net/abouaeara/?id=22 Small, R. (2001). Codes are not enough: What philosophy can contribute to the ethics of educational research. Journal of Philosophy of Education 35(3), 387 - 397. Haggerty, L.A. & Hawkins, J. (2000). Informed consent and the limits of confidentiality. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 22(4) , 508 - 514.

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