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Discovering the Scientist Within: Research Methods in Psychology 1st 2016 Edition Test Bank

Discovering the Scientist Within: Research Methods in Psychology 1st 2016 Edition Test Bank strengthens your knowledge with concise summaries, formulas, and exam-style problems.

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    Page 1 1. Compare and contrast the availability heuristic and the representativeness heuristic. 2. List and describe three characteristics of a good scientist. 3. Tavris and Aronson (2007) believe that “science is a form of arrogance control.” Use what you learned in this chapter to provide support for their claim. 4. In talking with her friends, Fabiana realizes that many college - aged students still believe in the existence of Santa Claus. Although few think he is a rosy - cheeked, bearded character who goes down chimneys, many do believe that he exists in spirit, instilling a sense of “Christmas cheer” and goodwill during the holiday season. Use you understanding of belief perseverance to explain why adults may still believe in Santa Claus. 5. Mark wonders whether he should pursue a degree in psychology. Help him see the merit in this major by describing three career skills that he will acquire by studying research methods and the discipline of psychology.

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    Page 2 Answer Key 1. Both the availability and representativeness heuristics represent biases in human thinking. These mental shortcuts are used when processing information and making decisions. By employing heuristics, people save time and energy and they free up cognitive resources for other tasks. However, both the availability and representativeness heuristics lead to processing errors. The availability heuristic is the tendency to assume that events that are easiest to recall occur most frequently. For instance, those things that make the biggest impact on one's memory are likely to be given disproportional weight. People may assume that plane crashes are more frequent than car crashes, because examples of plane crashes are salient in their memory. However, this bias obscures the fact that many more people die from car crashes each year. The representativeness heuristic is the tendency to judge an outcome by how similar it is to the “typical” example of that event. An individual who “looks like a criminal” may be mo re likely to receive a conviction from a jury, because he/she is representative of that mental category. An individual who does not look like a “typical” criminal may be judged less harshly, as jurors have trouble associating that person with the schema they hold for that category. 2. Scientists, whether in the field of psychology or in other disciplines, share certain core characteristics. These include (but are not limited to): skepticism — the tendency to ask questions about claims in an effort to seek the truth; open - mindedness — a willingness to pursue a deeper understanding about the nature of the world regardless of whether a topic or idea is unpopular or controversial; objectivity — basing claims on scientific data rather than on personal beliefs or opinions, even on topics wit h which one has extensive familiarity or experience; empiricism — the willingness to test ideas using the scientific method (systematic observation, experience, or measurement) to draw conclusions and admit when personal beliefs are unsupported; creativity — the ability to “think outside the box” and design novel approaches to answer scientific questions; and communication — the ability to share findings in writing or oral presentations with other scientists in an effort to extend the collective of knowledg e and serve the common good. 3. Thinking is fraught with flaws and biases. These include (but are not limited to): the availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, better - than - average effect, overconfidence, hindsight bias, confirmation bias, focusing effect, “what you see is all there is” phenomenon, and belief perseverance. Science counters these natural fallacies by requiring empirical evidence collected through systematic observation, experience, and/or measurement in order to make claims. By using science as a foundation, people are better able to evaluate claims, avoid biases, and make more objective and well - informed decisions. In doing this, however, people are made aware of the flaws, biases, and unscientific nature of their own thinking. It is often uncomfortable for people to accept that they are incorrect. Accordingly, by using science, our errors are brought to light and our arrogance (about being correct) is controlled. 4. Belief perseverance is the tendency to maintain a belief despite encountering contradictory information. Beliefs remain intact by interpreting information in a way that does not invalidate the original belief. In the case of Santa Claus, this belief is often one associated with important, cherished memories of one's childhood and family.

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    Page 3 Accordingly, it is not one that is easily dismissed, even in the face of evidence that Santa Claus does not exist. Rather, people alter their perceptions in a way that maintains the belief in Santa Claus, while incorporating enough of the truth that they remain in touch with socially acceptable perceptions (and some semblance of reality). 5. Psychologists gain a number of skills, including research methods skills that can facilitate future career success. These include (but are not limited to): project management skills — the ability to plan, organize, and execute complex tasks; problem solving skills — the ability to identify, define, and effectively implement solutions to potential problems; critical thinking skills — the ability to actively evaluate, analyze, and synthesize information; analytical skills — the ability to summarize and make sense of potential findings; interpretation of numerical information — the ability to draw conclusions from numerical data; and communication skills — the ability to present findings through clear, direct, and succinct writing.

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    Page 1 1. In what way does a research methods course differ from other psychology courses, like developmental psychology and biopsychology? A) Research methods courses focus on concepts and content. B) Research methods courses emphasize the use of the scientific method to answer questions. C) Memorizing is more important in research methods courses than in other courses. D) Only biopsychology courses emphasize the use of the scientific method to answer questions. 2. How is this research methods book a lot like the Apple Corporation? A) they share the goal of thinking differently B) both ask individuals to prioritize similarity C) neither value unique insight D) both caution against creativity 3. Research methods courses focus on: A) know - what. B) know - why. C) know - how. D) know - who. 4. _____ is the term that describes an individual's tendency to accept an explanation simply because it feels right. A) Pleasure paradox B) Outlier C) Introspection D) Truthiness 5. A friend tells you that shaving more frequently causes hair to grow back darker and coarser than before. You think this sounds correct, so you vow to only shave once a week. In this case, you have fallen victim to a phenomenon known as: A) truthiness. B) better - than - average effect. C) confirmation bias. D) introspection.

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    Page 2 6. Psychological science is based on: A) gut feelings. B) intuition. C) introspection. D) empirical research. 7. Gut feelings are to _____ as empirical research is to _____. A) truthiness; science B) science; truthiness C) bias; error D) science; bias 8. The availability heuristic is a strategy for: A) judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily one can think of similar instances. B) deciding the likelihood of an event by how much it resembles a “typical” example of that event. C) estimating one's skills and abilities as compared with others. D) searching for evidence that supports preexisting beliefs. 9. Josh lives in Wilmington, NC, and has recently learned that there was a hurricane warning issued for his location. In deciding whether to evacuate or remain at his house he remembered pictures from Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Sandy of individuals clinging to their rooftops waiting for air lifts to safety. He quickly decides to evacuate. His choice was the result of the: A) representativeness heuristic. B) better - than - average effect. C) availability heuristic. D) confirmation bias. 10. People often overestimate the likelihood of death by shark attack, plane crash, and violence, because news programs emphasize these extreme occurrences to drive up ratings. Your tendency to readily recall such instances even though they are objectively rare is the result of the: A) representativeness heuristic. B) better - than - average effect. C) confirmation bias. D) availability heuristic.

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    Page 3 11. Imagine that you are a fundraiser for the Susan G. Koman cancer foundation. When planning for an upcoming speech you remember the availability heuristic and decide to devote the majority of time to a _____ rather than _____. A) moving testimonial from a cancer survivor; charts and statistics about cancer risks factors B) moving testimonial from a cancer survivor; pictures of cancer survivors C) charts and statistics about cancer risks factors; pictures of cancer survivors D) charts and statistics about cancer risks factors; moving testimonial from a cancer survivor 12. You know that people are often more generous when donating to a cause after seeing a moving photograph than hearing impersonal statistics. In this case, research on the _____ confirms that a picture is worth a thousand words. A) representativeness heuristic B) availability heuristic C) better - than - average effect D) hindsight bias 13. Deciding the likelihood of an event based on how much it resembles the “typical” example of that event is known as the _____ heuristic. A) representativeness B) availability C) better - than - average D) outlier 14. According to the representativeness heuristic, which of the following are you most likely to think of as a librarian? A) a beautiful woman in her early twenties B) an athletically toned man in his teens C) an elderly woman who wears her hair in a bun D) a middle - aged man who is poorly shaven with tattered clothes 15. Juries may be more lenient when determining the innocence or guilt of individuals who appear attractive, sharply dressed, and well - mannered, because of the: A) better - than - average effect. B) confirmation bias. C) representativeness heuristic. D) availability heuristic.

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    Page 4 16. The _____ heuristic relies on how readily instances come to mind, whereas the _____ heuristic relies on how typical that instance is. A) availability; confirmation B) availability; representativeness C) representativeness; availability D) representativeness; confirmation 17. _____ is to typical as _____ is to memorable. A) Availability; confirmation B) Availability; representativeness C) Representativeness; availability D) Representativeness; confirmation 18. The _____ is the tendency to overestimate skills, abilities, and performance when comparing oneself with others. A) better - than - average effect B) confirmation bias C) representativeness heuristic D) availability heuristic 19. Which of the following is NOT an example of the better - than - average effect? A) Most people think they drive better than others. B) Most people think they are smarter than others. C) Most people think they are funnier than others. D) Most people think they are angrier than others. 20. First - born children may think they are braver than their siblings, whereas middle children may think they are more patient than their siblings, and youngest children may think they are more creative than their siblings. Each of these beliefs demonstrates a natural tendency for individuals to endorse the: A) confirmation bias. B) better - than - average effect. C) hindsight bias. D) overconfidence effect.

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    Page 5 21. Going into the first exam, a professor asks his students how well they think they will do. In line with the better - than - average effect, what percentage of the class likely anticipates performing better than the class average? A) 0% B) 25% C) 50% D) 75% 22. Dr. Pelham cautions her students against merely reviewing their notes when studying for an exam. She has found that when students only look over their written notes they experience _____, which can lead them to underprepare and underperform. A) confirmation bias B) hindsight bias C) overconfidence D) belief perseverance 23. Overconfidence is: A) a sense that one “knew it all along.” B) a tendency to be overly assured of the correctness of one's own judgments. C) the tendency to seek out information that supports your current beliefs. D) a strategy for deciding the likelihood of an event based on how much it resembles a “typical” example of that event. 24. _____ is most likely responsible for endorsement of the better - than - average effect. A) The availability heuristic B) The representativeness heuristic C) The overconfidence phenomenon D) Hindsight bias 25. After returning home from a blind date, Kelly's friend asks her how it went. She says that the date was a bust. Kelly's continued belief that she is a successful dater, despite the evidence of this unsuccessful date is an example of: A) the overconfidence phenomenon. B) the representativeness heuristic. C) the availability heuristic. D) hindsight bias.

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    Page 6 26. Professor Grey found that nearly 15% of her students turned in their project after its due date. Although this could be the result of procrastination, Professor Grey knows that the tardiness may also be the result of her students underestimating how long it will take them to complete the project. By thinking they can do more in the time allotted than they actually can, her students are demonstrating the: A) overconfidence phenomenon. B) representativeness heuristic. C) availability heuristic. D) hindsight bias. 27. The false - consensus effect is the te ndency to overestimate the degree to which others agree with your beliefs and opinions. Based on your understanding of processing biases, you know that this is most likely the result of: A) hindsight bias. B) the representativeness heuristic. C) confirmation bias. D) the overconfidence phenomenon. 28. Which of the following is correct regarding people's confidence and accuracy? A) People are often more confident than they are accurate. B) People are often less confident than they are accurate. C) People tend to be equally confident and accurate. D) People tend to be neither confident nor accurate. 29. Hindsight bias is: A) the tendency to be overly confident in the correctness of judgments. B) the tendency, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable. C) a cognitive bias where some evidence is overvalued, but other evidence is undervalued D) the assumption that immediate experience provides all the information needed to make a conclusion. 30. Galileo once said, “ All truths are easy to understand once they are discovered; the point is to discover them.” This is best representative of the: A) “what you see is all there is” phenomenon. B) representativeness heuristic. C) hindsight bias. D) confirmation bias.

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    Page 7 31. _____ is a bias in which people only look for evidence that agrees with what they already believe to be true. A) Confirmation bias B) Hindsight bias C) “What you see is all there is” bias D) Belief perseverance 32. The first information that people receive is often more influential than information presented later. One reason that early information is so effective is that it shapes information received later through the process of: A) confirmation bias. B) hindsight bias. C) the “what you see is all there is” bias. D) belief perseverance. 33. Which of the following is the reason that good leaders often employ someone to play the role of devil's advocate before making an important decision? A) confirmation bias B) hindsight bias C) “what you see is all there is” bias D) belief perseverance 34. People who are victims of the confirmation bias are like detectives who are focused on looking for _____ information. A) supporting B) contradicting C) all available D) the most salient 35. Jamal believes that he will do well on his upcoming chemistry exam. Without being aware of it, he selectively studies and reviews only information that he is familiar with and already knows. In this case, the _____ may be doing Jamal a disservice, as it keeps him from adequately studying for the exam. A) confirmation bias B) hindsight bias C) better - than - average effect D) representativeness heuristic

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    Page 8 36. _____ is a bias in which people emphasize some pieces of information while undervaluing other pieces of information. A) Overconfidence phenomenon B) Confirmation bias C) The focusing effect D) Bester - than - average effect 37. When parents emphasize their children's good attributes, while selectively minimizing their negative attributes, they are displaying the _____ effect. A) focusing B) overconfidence C) introspection D) confirmation 38. In trospection is: A) reflecting on a another person's thoughts and experiences to find relevant evidence. B) reflecting on one's own thoughts and experiences to find relevant evidence. C) systematic experimentation on your own thoughts and experiences. D) systematic experimentation on the thoughts and experiences of others. 39. A famous psychologist who was known for his use of introspection to unravel the mysteries of the unconscious mind was: A) Darwin. B) Milgram. C) Piaget. D) Freud. 40. Introspection is to _____ as observational data is to _____. A) self; self B) self; other C) other; self D) other; other 41. The “what you see is all there is” phenomenon is: A) the tendency to look for evidence that confirms what we already believe. B) a sense that one “knew it all along.” C) the tendency to be overly confident in the correctness of one's judgments. D) a failure to see the limitations of one's immediate experience.

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    Page 9 42. The “what you see is all there is” phenomenon leads people to: A) underestimate alternative explanations and outcomes. B) overestimate alternative explanations and outcomes. C) ignore the status quo. D) engage in accuracy checking of beliefs. 43. Which of the following is most similar to the confirmation bias? A) hindsight bias B) better - than - average effect C) “what you see is all there is” phenomenon D) representativeness heuristic 44. The pleasure paradox is: A) when introspection about a positive experience results in it becoming less enjoyable. B) when introspection about a positive experience results in it becoming more enjoyable. C) when introspection about a negative experience results in it becoming less enjoyable. D) when introspection about a negative experience results in it becoming more enjoyable. 45. _____ relating to an activity that you love can lead you to like it _____. A) Introspection; more B) Introspection; less C) Experimentation; more D) Experimentation; less 46. Introspection about which of the following things is likely to result in the pleasure paradox? A) getting a root canal B) receiving a speeding ticket C) winning the lottery D) failing an exam

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    Page 10 47. _____ is the tendency to maintain a belief despite encountering contradictory factual information, often by interpreting information in a way that does not invalidate the original belief. A) The availability heuristic B) Overconfidence C) Hindsight bias D) Belief perseverance 48. Veronica continues to attribute sounds in her house to ghosts although she knows they are not real. This is an example of: A) hindsight bias. B) better - than - average effect. C) belief perseverance. D) pleasure paradox. 49. Bobby is a loyal North Carolina Tar Heels basketball fan, even when they suffer setbacks and defeats. After a string of losses, he still claims that they are the best team in the nation. Bobby's loyalty demonstrates: A) belief perseverance. B) the “what you see is all there is” phenomenon. C) illusory correlation. D) planning fallacy. 50. Humans have a tendency to _____ anecdotes and personal experience. A) undervalue B) overvalue C) ignore D) discount 51. The tendency to value anecdotes and personal experience is believed to stem from a(n): A) inclination for quick and simple explanations. B) need for thoughtful consideration. C) drive to evaluate the world based on others' opinions. D) need for empirically verified data.

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    Page 11 52. The law of small numbers states: A) extreme outcomes are more likely when considering a small number of cases. B) as a sample grows, its average will get closer to the average of the entire population. C) extreme outcomes are less likely when considering a small number of cases. D) as a sample grows, its average will get farther away from the average of the population. 53. According to the _____, the there is a tendency for more extreme outcomes to occur when considering a small sample as compared to a large sample. A) law of large numbers B) law of small numbers C) law of even numbers D) law of odd numbers 54. A case that is the exception to the rule would be known as the: A) average. B) mean. C) outlier. D) norm. 55. Which of the following is an example of an outlier? A) a person who doesn't study and gets poor grades B) a person who eats healthfully and is average weight C) a person who drives the speed limit and has never been in a wreck D) a person who smokes daily and lives to be 100 56. Mrs. Pensky gives a test and the class average is a 78. Identify the grade that is the outlier. A) 83 B) 75 C) 68 D) 32 57. An outlier is: A) a case that is distinct from the majority of other cases. B) a case that is similar to the majority of other cases. C) an example of the representativeness heuristic. D) an example of the availability heuristic.

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    Page 12 58. People are more likely to generate “yeah, but” examples for research claims that _____ their personal experience. A) support B) contradict C) are in line with D) are unrelated to 59. The Moneyball approach to baseball represents a strategy in which team scouts rely on: A) emotions. B) anecdotes. C) statistics. D) gut feelings. 60. _____ is a systematic approach for addressing questions of interest. A) The scientific method B) The law of small numbers C) The focusing effect D) Introspection 61. Which of the following is a characteristic of a good scientist? A) uncertainty B) close - mindedness C) subjectivity D) empiricism 62. What is skepticism? A) the willingness to ask questions B) the ability to consider novel ways to approach questions C) the tendency to accept claims at face value D) the inability to accept uncertainty 63. _____ makes us a more critical consumers of information in our own lives. A) Creativity B) Open - mindedness C) Skepticism D) Communication

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