Psychology - Social Psychology - Quick Guides

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Study GuidePsychology–Social Psychology1.Behavior in GroupsBehavior in groupsrefers to how people think, feel, and act when they interact with others. Whentwo or more people are together, their behavior often changes compared to when they are alone. Thepresence of others can influence performance, decision-making, and attitudesin important ways.1.1Social FacilitationSocial facilitationhappens when peopleperform bettersimply because others are watching ornearby.This improved performance is believed to occur because:•People are aware they are being observed•They fear being evaluated or judged•The presence of others increases alertness and motivationFor example, an athlete may run faster or a student may solve familiar problems more quickly whenothers are present.1.2Social Interference (Social Loafing)In contrast,social interference, also calledsocial loafing, occurs when peopleperform worse in agroupthan they would alone.PsychologistRobert Zajoncfound that:•Social facilitation is more likely when a task issimple or well learned•Social interference is more likely when a task iscomplex or unfamiliarWhen tasks are difficult, the pressure of others watching can increase anxiety and reduceperformance.

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Study Guide1.3Group PolarizationGroup polarizationoccurs when group discussion makes people’s existing opinionsstronger ormore extreme.After talking with others who share similar views:•People often become more confident in their original beliefs•Attitudes shift further in the same directionOne reason for group polarization isdiffusion of responsibility. In a group, individuals feel lesspersonally responsible for decisions because responsibility is shared among members.1.4GroupthinkGroupthinkhappens when group members place a higher value onagreement and harmonythanon making the best possible decision.In groupthink situations:•Members avoid disagreement to keep peace•Alternative ideas are not seriously considered•Important or unpopular information may be ignoredAs a result, groups may make poor decisions because critical thinking is discouraged.2.AggressionAggressionis anyverbal or physical behaviorthat is meant to hurt, damage, or harm anotherperson or object. Aggression can occur between individuals or among groups, including entirenations. Because it causes so much harm and conflict, aggression is one of themost serious issuesin social relationships.A major question psychologists ask is:Where does aggression come from?2.1Biological Influences on AggressionBiology plays an important role in aggressive behavior.

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Study Guide•Genetics: Studies show that aggression can run in families. Research on identical twins oftenfinds that if one twin is aggressive, the other is likely to be aggressive as well.•Brain activity: Scientists have produced aggressive behavior in animals by electricallystimulating certain areas of the brain.•Chemicals and hormones: Substances such as alcohol and hormones liketestosteronehave been linked to increased aggression.Instinct TheoryEthologistKonrad Lorenzsuggested that aggression is aninstinctive behavior. According to hisview, aggression helps a species survive by protecting food, territory, and other important resources.2.2Learning and AggressionAggression is not only biological—it can also belearned.Frustration–Aggression HypothesisPsychologistJohn Dollardproposed that aggression results fromblocked goals. When people areprevented from achieving something they want, they may become aggressive.For example, imagine waiting in line for hours to buy tickets, only to find that the person ahead of yougets the last ones. That frustration can easily lead to anger or aggressive thoughts.2.3Social Learning and AggressionAggression can also be learned bywatching others, a process known associal learning.•Children often imitate aggressive behavior they see in parents, peers, or media.•Research suggests thatexposure to violent mediacan increase aggressive tendencies.•Domestic violenceis a serious social problem and often follows a cycle. Studies show thatmany male abusers grew up in homes where they witnessed violence or saw their motherbeing abused.Key TakeawayAggression hasmultiple causes, including biology, instincts, frustration, and learned behavior.Understanding these factors helps psychologists develop ways to reduce aggression and preventviolence in society.

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Study Guide3.PrejudicePrejudiceis anegative attitudetoward people simply because they belong to a particular group.When these negative attitudes turn into actions, they are calleddiscrimination—treating peopledifferently and usually unfairly because of their group membership.Prejudice often develops fromstereotypes, which are fixed and oversimplified beliefs about a group.These stereotypes are usually inaccurate and ignore individual differences.A common example of discrimination issexism, which is based on the stereotype that women areinferior to men.3.1Causes of PrejudicePrejudice does not come from a single source. Instead, it develops through a combination of learning,motivation, personality, and thinking patterns.Social LearningChildren oftenlearn prejudice by observing others, especially parents, friends, and people in theircommunity. If prejudice is modeled or encouraged, children may adopt the same attitudes.Motivational FactorsAccording tomotivational theory, people who strongly want to succeed may develop negativefeelings toward their competitors. These negative views can then be unfairlygeneralized to an entiregroup, not just one individual.Personality FactorsPersonality theorysuggests that prejudice can grow out of early life experiences.For example, someone raised by a strict, punishing caregiver who belongs to a certain group maylater develop prejudice toward all members of that group.Cognitive FactorsFrom acognitive perspective, people use mental shortcuts to organize the world. While theseshortcuts save effort, they can lead toovergeneralizations, such as assuming that all members of agroup are the same (for example, believing all homeless people are alike).

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Study Guide3.2Reducing and Eliminating PrejudicePrejudice can be reduced and even eliminated through several effective approaches:•Personal contact: Getting to know individuals from the group can challenge stereotypes andreduce fear.•Rational thinking: Teaching people to think logically about fairness, equality, and evidencehelps weaken prejudiced beliefs.•Changing social norms: Practices likedesegregationpromote status equality and reduceprejudice by encouraging interaction and cooperation.Key TakeawayPrejudice is a learned attitude that can lead to unfair treatment of others. Because it is learned, it canalso beunlearned. Through education, personal contact, and social change, prejudiced attitudes anddiscriminatory behaviors can be reduced.4.Interpersonal AttractionInterpersonal attractionrefers to the positive feelings and attitudes we have toward other people.These feelings can vary in strength and depth, from simply enjoying someone’s company to formingdeep emotional bonds.Interpersonal attraction can take several forms:•Affiliation: Wanting to spend time with another person•Liking: Having a generally positive feeling toward someone•Friendship: A mutual liking where both people enjoy being together•Love: A deeper emotional connection involving intimacy, passion, and commitment4.1Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of LovePsychologistRobert Sternbergexplained love using atriangular modelmade up of three keycomponents:

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