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Psychology - Social Psychology

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    Study Guide Psychology – Social Psychology 1. Behavior in Groups Behavior in groups refers to how people think, feel, and act when they interact with others. When two or more people are together, their behavior often changes compared to when they are alone. The presence of others can influence performance, decision - making, and attitudes in important ways. 1.1 Social Facilitation Social facilitation happens when people perform better simply because others are watching or nearby. This improved performance is believed to occur because: • People are aware they are being observed • They fear being evaluated or judged • The presence of others increases alertness and motivation For example, an athlete may run faster or a student may solve familiar problems more quickly when others are present. 1.2 Social Interference (Social Loafing) In contrast, social interference , also called social loafing , occurs when people perform worse in a group than they would alone. Psychologist Robert Zajonc found that: • Social facilitation is more likely when a task is simple or well learned • Social interference is more likely when a task is complex or unfamiliar When tasks are difficult, the pressure of others watching can increase anxiety and reduce performance.

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    Study Guide 1.3 Group Polarization Group polarization occurs when group discussion makes people’s existing opinions stronger or more extreme . After talking with others who share similar views: • People often become more confident in their original beliefs • Attitudes shift further in the same direction One reason for group polarization is diffusion of responsibility . In a group, individuals feel less personally responsible for decisions because responsibility is shared among members. 1.4 Groupthink Groupthink happens when group members place a higher value on agreement and harmony than on making the best possible decision. In groupthink situations: • Members avoid disagreement to keep peace • Alternative ideas are not seriously considered • Important or unpopular information may be ignored As a result, groups may make poor decisions because critical thinking is discouraged. 2. Aggression Aggression is any verbal or physical behavior that is meant to hurt, damage, or harm another person or object. Aggression can occur between individuals or among groups, including entire nations. Because it causes so much harm and conflict, aggression is one of the most serious issues in social relationships . A major question psychologists ask is: Where does aggression come from? 2.1 Biological Influences on Aggression Biology plays an important role in aggressive behavior.

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    Study Guide • Genetics : Studies show that aggression can run in families. Research on identical twins often finds that if one twin is aggressive, the other is likely to be aggressive as well. • Brain activity : Scientists have produced aggressive behavior in animals by electrically stimulating certain areas of the brain. • Chemicals and hormones : Substances such as alcohol and hormones like testosterone have been linked to increased aggression. Instinct Theory Ethologist Konrad Lorenz suggested that aggression is an instinctive behavior . According to his view, aggression helps a species survive by protecting food, territory, and other important resources. 2.2 Learning and Aggression Aggression is not only biological — it can also be learned . Frustration – Aggression Hypothesis Psychologist John Dollard proposed that aggression results from blocked goals . When people are prevented from achieving something they want, they may become aggressive. For example, imagine waiting in line for hours to buy tickets, only to find that the person ahead of you gets the last ones. That frustration can easily lead to anger or aggressive thoughts. 2.3 Social Learning and Aggression Aggression can also be learned by watching others , a process known as social learning . • Children often imitate aggressive behavior they see in parents, peers, or media. • Research suggests that exposure to violent media can increase aggressive tendencies. • Domestic violence is a serious social problem and often follows a cycle. Studies show that many male abusers grew up in homes where they witnessed violence or saw their mother being abused. Key Takeaway Aggression has multiple causes , including biology, instincts, frustration, and learned behavior. Understanding these factors helps psychologists develop ways to reduce aggression and prevent violence in society.

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    Study Guide 3. Prejudice Prejudice is a negative attitude toward people simply because they belong to a particular group. When these negative attitudes turn into actions, they are called discrimination — treating people differently and usually unfairly because of their group membership. Prejudice often develops from stereotypes , which are fixed and oversimplified beliefs about a group. These stereotypes are usually inaccurate and ignore individual differences. A common example of discrimination is sexism , which is based on the stereotype that women are inferior to men. 3.1 Causes of Prejudice Prejudice does not come from a single source. Instead, it develops through a combination of learning, motivation, personality, and thinking patterns. Social Learning Children often learn prejudice by observing others , especially parents, friends, and people in their community. If prejudice is modeled or encouraged, children may adopt the same attitudes. Motivational Factors According to motivational theory , people who strongly want to succeed may develop negative feelings toward their competitors. These negative views can then be unfairly generalized to an entire group , not just one individual. Personality Factors Personality theory suggests that prejudice can grow out of early life experiences. For example, someone raised by a strict, punishing caregiver who belongs to a certain group may later develop prejudice toward all members of that group. Cognitive Factors From a cognitive perspective , people use mental shortcuts to organize the world. While these shortcuts save effort, they can lead to overgeneralizations , such as assuming that all members of a group are the same (for example, believing all homeless people are alike).

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    Study Guide 3.2 Reducing and Eliminating Prejudice Prejudice can be reduced and even eliminated through several effective approaches: • Personal contact : Getting to know individuals from the group can challenge stereotypes and reduce fear. • Rational thinking : Teaching people to think logically about fairness, equality, and evidence helps weaken prejudiced beliefs. • Changing social norms : Practices like desegregation promote status equality and reduce prejudice by encouraging interaction and cooperation. Key Takeaway Prejudice is a learned attitude that can lead to unfair treatment of others. Because it is learned, it can also be unlearned . Through education, personal contact, and social change, prejudiced attitudes and discriminatory behaviors can be reduced. 4. Interpersonal Attraction Interpersonal attraction refers to the positive feelings and attitudes we have toward other people. These feelings can vary in strength and depth, from simply enjoying someone’s company to forming deep emotional bonds. Interpersonal attraction can take several forms: • Affiliation : Wanting to spend time with another person • Liking : Having a generally positive feeling toward someone • Friendship : A mutual liking where both people enjoy being together • Love : A deeper emotional connection involving intimacy, passion, and commitment 4.1 Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love Psychologist Robert Sternberg explained love using a triangular model made up of three key components:

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