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Introducing Psychology Third Edition Test Bank

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    Page 1 1. Contrast the views of Plato and Aristotle on the nature versus nurture debate. Why were Plato and Aristotle unable to settle their debate? 2. Differentiate between a structuralist and functionalist approach to understanding consciousness. Identify the founders of both approaches and the earlier influences that gave rise to these schools of psychology. 3. Discuss Sigmund Freud's influence on the field of psychology. What are the contributions and critiques of psychoanalytic theory? 4. Why would John Watson disagree with the definition of psychology as stated in the textbook? 5. While the underlying views of B. F. Skinner about the human condition differ markedly from humanistic views, interestingly his goals for the advancement of humanity are remarkably similar. Compare and contrast Skinner's views with humanistic psychology. 6. Discuss some benefits that behaviorism brought to the field of psychology. Then, discuss some problems associated with behaviorism. 7. Discuss how technological advancements, along with work in the field of linguistics, advanced cognitive psychology and ultimately led to the downfall of behaviorism as the dominant field within psychology. 8. How might an evolutionary psychologist explain human behavior that is largely detrimental to the individual or the culture, such as aggression or a preference for a high - fat diet? 9. Humans have a tendency to be afraid of the dark. Provide an explanation of this phenomenon within the framework of both behaviorism and evolutionary psychology. Are the two explanations necessarily incompatible? 10. Discuss the growing impact on psychology of women and non - White minorities, and identify some pioneering women and minorities within psychology.

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    Page 2 11. Describe four non - research career specializations within psychology.

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    Page 3 Answer Key 1. The answer should provide the following information: (1) Plato argued that the infant is born with certain kinds of knowledge that are innate, or inborn, such as the ability to learn language. This philosophical viewpoint, termed nativism, is consistent with a view of psychology based partly on nature; (2) Aristotle argued that the mind is a blank slate, and thus every experience an infant has contributes to his or her personality, thought processes, emotions, and so on. This corresponds to a view of psycho logy based entirely on nurture, known as philosophical empiricism; (3) They could not settle the nature versus nurture debate because they had no objective means of testing those positions. 2. The answer should indicate that Wilhelm Wundt began structuralism and was greatly influenced by the physiological research of Helmholtz. Structuralism attempts to identify the basic elements that constitute the mind by deconstructing the conscious experience through techniques such as introspection. William James began functionalism. He did not believe that consciousness can be broken down into basic elements; rather, he believed consciousness was more like a flowing stream than a collection of component parts. Functionalism sought to identify the ada ptive significance, or functions, of consciousness rather than deconstructing it into elements. James was highly influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection. 3. The answer should provide the following information: (1) Though many people disagree with Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory, he is one of the most influential thinkers of the twentieth century; (2) Freud had been educated as a physician and noticed that patients were coming into his office with problems that had no physical justification. Freud decided to talk with these patients about their symptoms. Over time, he developed a therapy called psychoanalysis which has had a great impact on clinical practi ce; (3) Freud developed a theory of how the mind works and how people may be governed by forces of which they are unaware. This idea of an unconscious has had a tremendous impact on psychology, literature, and art. It also formed the basis of psychoanalysis, which involves bringing unconscious motivations, desires, and thoughts into the conscious mind; (4) One limitation of psychoanalytic theory is that it does not lend itself to testable predictions. Because there is little empirical support for Freud's th eories, his influence has diminished over the decades. Another criticism of psychoanalytic theory is that it portrayed the human condition pessimistically, positing that human behavior was governed by rather dark forces that were outside of our conscious awareness. 4. The answer should indicate that psychology can be defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. John Watson was the founder of behaviorism. He believed that mental processes could not be studied scientifically because they were not objectively observable. He believed that, if psychology was to be a science, it should confine its subject matter to objectively observable behavior. For this reason, Watson would disagree with the definition of psychology as presented in the textbook. 5. The answer should provide the following information: (1) Skinner denied the existence of free will. According to Skinner, behavior was largely determined by a history of reinforcement; (2) Humanistic psychologists, such as Maslow and Rogers, believed that humans are free and active agents in trying to fulfill their own potential; (3) Nevertheless, both Skinner and the humanists shared an optimistic goal that psychologists could help improve the human condition. (4) Skinner and the humanists

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    Page 4 attempted to better humanity using radically different methods. Skinner advocated arranging environments in which desirable behavior would be reinforced. The principles of reinforcement thus could be used to increase social welfare. Humanistic psychologists, on the other hand, focused on the power of a person's free choice in reaching his or her full potential, and developed therapies to facilitate this process. 6. The answer should provide the following information: (1) Behaviorists highlight ed the need for psychologists to study phenomena that were objectively observable. This advanced the science of psychology; (2) The research of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson demonstrated how associations between stimuli and responses are formed; (3) Using rats, B. F. Skinner developed a methodology demonstrating that the consequences of behavior determine its future occurrence. This work has taught psychologists how people — and not just rats — learn. His principle of reinforcement pervades modern psychology; (4) Skinner's suggestion that we do things in the present that have been rewarding in the past, and our sense of “choosing” to do them is nothing more than an illusion sparked an outcry from critics who believed that Skinner was calling for a repressive society that manipulated people for its own ends. As a result, most psychologists ultimately shifted away from the behaviorist approach. 7. The answer should indicate that the advent of the computer gave psychologists a useful model of mental processes. For example, both computers and people seem to register, store, and retrieve information. This computer model inspired much research in the field of cognitive psychology. This growing field of cognitive psychology studied important processes that behaviorists largely ignored, such as perception, memory, and attention, and ultimately supplanted behaviorism as the dominant theoretical position wit hin psychology. Contributing to the downfall of behaviorism was Noam Chomsky's scathing review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior . Skinner believed that language (he called it verbal behavior) was essentially the product of reinforcement. For example, if saying “please” is reinforced, that person may become more polite. Chomsky charged that Skinner's theory of language was overly simplistic. Children use grammar rules that are not explicitly taught and generate novel phrases that were never explicitly reinf orced. 8. The answer should provide the following information: (1) Evolutionary psychologists believe that human behavior is the product of millions of years of natural selection. Although these behaviors are largely detrimental today, they were adaptive in the environment of our ancestors; (2) Our ancestors who aggressively procured food and sexual partners tended to be the ones who lived and passed on their genes; (3) In an ancestral environment where food was scarce, those ancestors who had a preference for high - f at foods obtained the calories that they needed to survive; (4) In today's environment where food is abundant and behaving aggressively can send one to prison, these behaviors are largely detrimental. But we are stuck with the genes of our ancestors. To the extent that these behaviors are, in part, biologically determined, we will continue to have a propensity to engage in these behaviors. 9. The answer should provide the following information: (1) Humans tend not to see well at night. As such, we are prone to accidents when navigating in the dark. In addition, we are at a disadvantage if surrounded by large nocturnal animals that could possibly harm us. In contrast, hunkering down and sleeping in small groups at night provides some measure of safety; (2) Behaviorists would focus on the learning that occurs within an

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    Page 5 individual's lifetime. For example, the last time Bob went hunting at night he broke his ankle and almost got eaten by a lion. Hunting at night, then, has been punished by its consequences. Conversely, seeking a safe shelter is reinforced with warmth, safety, and companionship. As a result of these learning experiences, Bob fears the dark and would rather stay inside; (3) Evolutionary psychologists would note that, during the course of mammalian evolution, our ancestors who ventured outside in the dark tend ed not to reproduce in great numbers, perhaps because they fell off cliffs or got eaten by crocodiles. Those ancestors, who just so happened to be leery of the dark, lived to pass on their genes. Thus, we are left with the genes of those who did not particularly enjoy nightly jaunts through the forest; (4) On the surface, the two explanations are very different. While behaviorists do not deny the role of genetics, they point to the environment as the major determinant of behavior. As such, a behaviorist wou ld first seek to understand the learning experiences that shaped an individual's fear of the dark. On the other hand, an evolutionary psychologist will focus on differential reproductive success as a result of the behavior of our ancestors. We are left with their genes, and thus, their behavior patterns; (5) The two explanations are not incompatible but rather represent different levels of analysis. For example, early mammals might learn to avoid the dark through natural consequences within their lifetime. Principles of reinforcement and punishment from a behavioral account would explain this behavior. These are the mammals that live to reproduce and pass on their genes. To the extent that susceptibility to reinforcement is, in part, genetically based, we are genetically predisposed to fear the dark due to the learning experiences of our remote ancestors. 10. The answer should provide the following information: (1) Today, women and non - White minorities play leading roles in all areas of psychology; (2) Kenneth Clark, an African American who became the first President of the American Psychological Association in 1970, worked extensively on the self - image of African American children and argued that segregation of the races created great psychological harm. Clark's research was fundamental and contributed to the Supreme Court's 1954 ruling ( Brown v. Board of Education ) to outlaw segregation in public schools. Clark's interest in psychology was sparked by taking a course taught by Francis Cecil Sumner, the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology in 1920; (3) In 1894, Margaret Floy Washburn became the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology; (4) Mary Calkins, the first woman elected as president of the APA in 1905, was mentored by William James and advanced a theory of the role of “self” in psychology. She argued that self is a single unit that cannot be broken down; (5) Women now earn the majority of Ph.D. degrees granted in psychology. Psychology is becoming a female - dominated field. In addition, the number of Ph.D. degrees granted to minorities has increased from a very small number to 24 percent since 1950. 11. The answer should provide the following information: (1) Clinical psychologists assess and treat people with psychological disorders. They work closely with psychiatrists, who have a medical degree and can prescribe medication. Clinical psychology makes up almost half of the doctorates awarded with psychology; (2) Counseling psychologists assist people dealing with career issues, or common personal problems such as divorce, unemployment, or the loss of a loved one; (3) School psychologists work in education al settings and provide guidance to students, parents, and teachers; (4) Industrial/organizational psychologists work in business and industry and focus on

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    Page 6 issues such as improving productivity, developing effective planning strategies, and dealing with change.

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    Page 1 1. Psychology is the scientific study of: A) mind and body. B) mind and behavior. C) mood and behavior. D) mood and body. 2. Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Behavior refers to: A) perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feelings. B) explanations. C) urges. D) observable actions of humans and nonhuman animals. 3. Today, psychologists believe that mental processes: A) arise from electrical and chemical activities of the brain. B) arise from a nonphysical mind interacting with the pineal gland in the brain. C) are not proper subject matter for science research. D) usually are not adaptive in helping us function effectively in the world. 4. Today, most psychologists would agree with which statement concerning mental processes? A) The scientific method cannot be applied to mental processes. B) Mental processes are nonphysical entities that control the brain and body. C) Mental processes arise from brain functioning. D) Mental processes are the only subject matter worthy of study in psychology. 5. Using _____, Krings et al. (2000) demonstrated that the brains of professional piano players were _____ active than novice players when both groups made finger movements like those involved in piano play. A) fMRI; more B) fMRI; less C) CT scans; more D) CT scans; less 6. The case of Elliot, as documented by Damasio (1994), suggests that: A) cognitive functioning can be severely impaired while emotion remains unaffected. B) emotions usually interfere with adaptive behavior. C) even negative emotions such as anxiety and sorrow have adaptive functions. D) emotion and intelligence share a common neural substrate.

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    Page 2 7. Which is the primary reason why modern psychologists study the mind's mistakes in behavior and cognition? A) They are more intriguing than normal psychological functioning. B) They allow us to learn about the normal operations of mental life and behavior. C) They provide a window into the sexual urges of the unconscious. D) They vividly illustrate the fact that most psychological functioning is not adaptive. 8. Some early philosophers believed that certain kinds of knowledge were innate or inborn, a theory known as: A) functionalism. B) nativism. C) philosophical empiricism. D) structuralism. 9. Which early philosopher was interested in certain kinds of knowledge as being innate or inborn? A) Hippocrates B) Plato C) Aristotle D) Descartes 10. The older position of nativism is reflected in psychological views that emphasize the effect of _____ on behavior. A) nurture B) intuition C) schemas D) nature 11. Plato is to _____ as Aristotle is to _____. A) philosophical structuralism; nativism B) nativism; philosophical empiricism C) nativism; dualism D) dualism; nativism 12. Nature is to nurture as nativism is to: A) experience. B) adaptation. C) behaviorism. D) phrenology.

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    Page 3 13. Some early philosophers believed that all knowledge was acquired through experience, an idea now known as: A) functionalism. B) philosophical empiricism. C) structuralism. D) nativism. 14. The notion that the mind at birth is a blank slate is consistent with the views of: A) Plato. B) Descartes. C) Aristotle. D) Gall. 15. The fact that very young children almost universally master the basics of language without formal training is most consistent with: A) Plato's nativism. B) Gall's phrenology. C) Aristotle's philosophical empiricism. D) Locke's tabula rasa . 16. The major limitation of the works of the classical Greek philosophers to an understanding of human behavior is that: A) much of these works remains lost to history. B) differences among translations have fueled misunderstanding and debate. C) the works tended to underestimate the role of nurture in shaping human behavior. D) these philosophers did not develop ways to test their theories. 17. _____ believed that the mind and body are different from each other. A) Gall B) Hobbes C) Descartes D) Aristotle 18. A spiritual leader believes that the soul and the body are fundamentally different from each other, but are linked via a special structure in the brain. His beliefs are similar to those of: A) Gall. B) Descartes. C) Hobbes. D) Broca.

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    Page 4 19. The modern view that the subjective experience of having a mind is the result of brain activity can be traced to which philosopher? A) Hobbes B) Plato C) Descartes D) James 20. The problem of dualism refers to how: A) different areas in the brain control different types of behavior and cognition. B) mental activity can be reconciled and coordinated with physical behavior. C) brain activity produces consciousness. D) both genetic and environmental factors influence human behavior. 21. After suffering a stroke, Lisa was able to understand what people said to her but was unable to speak to them. The stroke probably damaged her: A) pineal gland. B) Broca's area. C) hippocampus. D) temporal lobe. 22. The research of Broca: A) established phrenology as a true science. B) confirmed Descartes' belief that the mind and body were linked via the pineal gland. C) is consistent with the view of the mind held by Thomas Hobbes. D) demonstrated that mental processes can occur independently of brain activity. 23. The early roots of psychology are firmly planted in physiology and in: A) anatomy. B) logic. C) dualism. D) philosophy. 24. Penny wanted to find out how long it would take her sister Cathy to remove her finger from the flame of a lighted match. Penny is studying what type of process? A) classical conditioning B) introspection C) reaction time D) stimulus time

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    Page 5 25. Hermann von Helmholtz is most remembered for: A) debunking phrenology. B) opening the first laboratory to conduct purely psychological experiments. C) being the first to measure the speed of a nervous impulse. D) discovering the relation between emotion and the amygdala. 26. An acupuncturist asks you to respond as soon as you feel a pinprick as she stimulates your upper thigh, hamstring, calf, and foot with a needle. Based on Helmholtz's research, you will react most quickly when the _____ is stimulated. A) upper thigh B) hamstring C) calf D) foot 27. Hermann von Helmholtz is to _____ as Wilhelm Wundt is to _____. A) phrenology; functionalism B) reaction time; structuralism C) reaction time; functionalism D) phrenology; structuralism 28. Historians generally credit the emergence of psychology as a science to: A) Wundt. B) Helmholtz. C) Watson. D) Titchener. 29. The first laboratory devoted exclusively to psychology as an independent field of study opened in: A) Paris in 1859. B) Leipzig in 1879. C) Berlin in 1889. D) Cornell University in 1909. 30. Wundt believed that scientific psychology should focus on analyzing the basic elements comprising consciousness, an approach he called: A) functionalism. B) psychoanalysis. C) structuralism. D) dualism.

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    Page 6 31. The analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind is: A) psychoanalysis. B) functionalism. C) structuralism. D) consciousness. 32. A person's subjective experience of the world and the mind is: A) empiricism. B) dualism. C) structuralism. D) consciousness. 33. What technique did psychologists who studied structuralism use? A) conditioning B) introspection C) psychoanalysis D) hypnosis 34. Presented with a stimulus, student observers in Wundt's lab were asked to report on their “raw” sensory experience, a technique known as: A) inspection. B) circumspection. C) retrospection. D) introspection. 35. A participant seated in an otherwise dark room stares at the flickering of a lit candle and reports on her subjective experiences, such as the visual experience of the candle flickering and the hepatic sensation of warmth. The psychologist conducting this experiment is most likely to be _____, and the method being used is _____. A) Wundt; psychoanalysis B) Wundt; introspection C) James; functionalism D) Titchener; functionalism 36. William James viewed consciousness as similar to: A) a flowing stream. B) the parts of an atom. C) an explanatory fiction. D) the parts of a clock.

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    Page 7 37. William James was a noted: A) structuralist. B) behaviorist. C) functionalist. D) empiricist. 38. The study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling us to adapt to our environment is called: A) structuralism. B) social Darwinism. C) functionalism. D) behaviorism. 39. William James is to _____ as Wilhelm Wundt is to _____. A) functionalism; behaviorism B) functionalism; structuralism C) structuralism; behaviorism D) structuralism; functionalism 40. Which school of psychology was most concerned w ith the adaptive importance of mental processes? A) structuralism B) functionalism C) behaviorism D) empiricism 41. William James's school of functionalism was most influenced by the works of: A) B. F. Skinner. B) Wilhelm Wundt. C) Charles Darwin. D) René Descartes. 42. The functionalist approach was MOST influenced by the theory of: A) phrenology. B) nativism. C) natural selection. D) psychodynamics.

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    Page 8 43. Research participants are asked to rotate a three - dimensional object in their minds. William James would be MOST interested in which research question? A) What are the subjective experiences of the participants as they do this task? B) In what ways does the ability to manipulate objects in the mind aid problem solving in the real world? C) At what age does this ability develop? D) What are the unconscious processes underlying this task? 44. Studies have demonstrated that we attend to only a fraction of the sensory information that the brain receives. Based on this information, William James would be MOST interested in which research question? A) What are the basic elements of sensory information? B) Do unattended sensory experiences exist in the unconscious? C) Will more information be perceived if participants are reinforced by cash incentives for better attention? D) Why might it be advantageous for the mind to filter out most sensory information? 45. In the late 1800s, a temporary loss of cognitive or motor function, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences, was termed: A) agoraphobia. B) hysteria. C) neurosis. D) generalized anxiety. 46. In the late 1800s, Charcot noted that symptoms of hysteria were eliminated when patients: A) were paid for not exhibiting those symptoms. B) received electroconvulsive shock therapy. C) were hypnotized. D) introspected on the causes of their hysteria. 47. Freud emphasized that the problems of many patients could be traced to: A) effects of painful childhood experiences that could not be remembered. B) “mind bugs,” or curious failures of otherwise adaptive cognitive processes. C) feelings of shame and inadequacy acquired during adolescent sexual development. D) maladaptive patterns of behavior that could be observed during infancy.

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    Page 9 48. Freud termed the _____ as the part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness but influences conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions. A) preconscious B) unconscious C) self - conscious D) subconscious 49. The theory that emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviors is called: A) Gestalt theory. B) structuralism. C) functionalism. D) psychoanalytic theory. 50. Carrie is working with a patient to uncov er the patient's early experiences as well as trying to bring unconscious anxieties and conflicts into awareness. Carrie is using which approach to work with her patient? A) cognitive B) psychoanalytical C) Gestalt D) humanistic 51. Psychoanalysis focuses on: A) the adaptability of certain psychological disorders. B) deconstructing consciousness into its component parts. C) bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness. D) ways to banish anxiety into the unconscious. 52. Which psychologist was NOT part of the psychoanalytic movement? A) Sigmund Freud B) Alfred Adler C) Carl Jung D) Carl Rogers 53. Psychoanalysis became quite controversial in American culture because it: A) proposed that behavior was governed, in part, by unconscious sexual desires. B) lacked empirical support for its effectiveness. C) denied the existence of the mind and human free will. D) focused only on observable behavior and ignored the role of cognition.

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