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Lecture Notes For Psychology And Life, 20th Edition

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    1 Chapter 1 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE ▲ TABLE OF CONTENTS To access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or press CTRL + click To return to the Table of Contents, click on ▲ Return to Table of Contents To return to a section of the Lecture Guide, click on ► Return to Lecture Guide ► LECTURE GUIDE ¾ What Makes Psychology Unique? (p. 2) ¾ The Evolution of Modern Psychology (p. 3) ¾ What Psychologists Do (p. 6) ¾ How to Use This Text (p. 6) ▼ FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES ¾ Key Terms (p. 8) ¾ Changes from 19th Edition to 20th Edition (p. 9) ¾ Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 10) ¾ Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 18) ¾ Handout Masters (p. 22) ¾ Forty Studies That Changed Psychology (p. 25) ¾ Web Resources (p. 26) ¾ Video Resources (p. 30) ¾ Multimedia Resources (p. 32) ¾ PowerPoint Slides (p. 33) ¾ Accessing Resources (p. 33)

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    Instructor’s Manual for Psychology and Life, 20 th Edition 2 LECTURE GUIDE WHAT MAKES PSYCHOLOGY UNIQUE? (Text p. 2) Lecture Launchers/Discussion Topics: ¾ How Do We Know What We Know? ¾ Psychology and Common Sense Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises: ¾ Misconceptions About Psychology ¾ Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking ¾ Promoting Cultural Awareness Web Resources: ¾ General Resources Outline I. What Makes Psychology Unique? A. Basic Definitions 1. Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes. As such, psychologists are behavioral scientists. 2. The scientific method is the orderly, analytical process used in all sciences to analyze and solve problems. 3. Behavior is observable, measurable action. It is the means by which both animals and humans adjust to their environment. 4. Most often, the subject of scientific analysis in psychology is an individual . This can include studying behavior that is affected by developmental change, as well as by external environmental change (e.g., the influence of interactions with other organisms). 5. Mental processes/cognition refer to the private, internal workings of the mind. 6. Psychology, the field is a comparison to areas both inside and outside the social sciences. B. The Goals of Psychology 1. The primary goal of psychology is to improve our understanding of behavior. Hence, the goals of the psychologist conducting basic research are to describe , explain , predict , or control behavior. 2. Accurately describing behavior requires the following: a) First, the psychologist must observe and accurately measure the behavior. Behavioral data includes the psychologist’s report of observations about the behavior and the conditions under which the behavior occurs. b) The type of behavioral data collected depends on the level of analysis. The focus of observations can range from broad, general, and global aspects all the way to minute details of the organism under study. c) Objectivity refers to the scientific necessity to record behavioral data as facts—as they really exist—not as we hope them to exist. Objectivity helps ensure the advancement of scientific understanding of behavior, free of subjective, personal biases, prejudices, and expectations that would distort the data collected. C. Explaining behavior requires that explanations deliberately go beyond the basic description of what can be observed. 1. Psychologists do not want to just describe ; they want explain how or why a particular behavior occurs. 2. Behavior results from a combination of many internal factors (e.g., intelligence, developmental stage, physical health, genetics) and external factors (e.g., peer pressure, socioeconomic status) that all influence one another. 3. Psychologists must synthesize observed behavior with existing scientific knowledge to arrive at causal explanations about the behavior (e.g., Observation: The roommate does not actively participate in class. Explanation: Because he or she is also very quiet in many other social situations, perhaps his behavior in class is “caused” by his shyness.). D. Predicting behavior involves statements about the likelihood of a specific behavior occurring.

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    Chapter 1: Psychology and Life 3 1. Scientific prediction is based on an understanding of relationships between behaviors and the mechanisms that link those behaviors to certain predictors. Scientists derive this information by systematically varying the conditions that lead to certain behaviors. E. For many psychologists, controlling behavior is the ultimate, central goal. 1. This is particularly true for applied psychologists, whose goal is to improve individuals’ quality of life. 2. Controlling behavior means influencing a behavior to happen or not to happen, and influencing the nature of the behavior as it is being performed. 3. Throughout Psychology and Life are examples of how psychologists work to change or help people control behavior (e.g., improving mental health, helping people change unhealthy behaviors, teaching parenting skills). ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY (Text p. 5) Lecture Launchers/Discussion Topics: ¾ African Americans and Psychology ¾ Women in the History of Psychology in America ¾ Biographical Profiles ¾ Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the Throne ¾ There Are Other Psychologies in the World ¾ Some Effects of Culture on the Individual Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises: ¾ Perspectives in Psychology Forty Studies That Changed Psychology: ¾ Watch Out for the Visual Cliff! Web Resources: ¾ History of Psychology Outline I. The Evolution of Modern Psychology A. At the core of this historical review is one simple principle: Ideas Matter (ideas influence the manner in which people think, feel, and behave) B. Psychology’s Historical Foundation 1. Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato pondered psychological questions about the mind and the essence of life. 2. Later philosophers developed ideas that continue to show up in today’s psychology. These include John Locke’s development of empiricism and Immanuel Kant’s development of nativist views. C. Psychology’s Historical Figures 1. In 1879, in Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal laboratory devoted to experimental psychology (sensation and perception). 2. In 1883, the first experimental psychology laboratory in the United States was founded at Johns Hopkins University. 3. Edward Titchener, a student of Wundt, became an influential early psychologist with his laboratory at Cornell University, founded in 1892. 4. In 1890, William James, brother of novelist Henry James, wrote the two-volume work, The Principles of Psychology , which many experts consider the most important psychology text ever written. 5. In 1892, G. Stanley Hall founded the American Psychological Association. 6. With the emergence of the field of experimental psychology, debate began over the proper methods and subject matter of the new field.

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    Instructor’s Manual for Psychology and Life, 20 th Edition 4 D. Early Psychology’s Methods: Structuralism versus Functionalism 1. Structuralism: The contents of the mind a) Edward Titchener used introspection to understand the “what” of mental contents rather than the “why” or “how” of thinking. This approach came to be known as structuralism, the study of the structure of mind and behavior. b) Structuralism was based on the assumption that all human mental experience could be understood as the combination of simple elements. c) The goal of structuralism was to reveal the underlying structure of the human mind by analyzing the basic elements of sensation and other experiences that form mental life. d) Structuralism was attacked primarily on three grounds: (i) It was reductionistic , reducing all complex human experience to simple sensations. (ii) It was elemental , seeking to combine parts into a whole rather than study the variety of behaviors directly. (iii) It was mentalistic , studying only verbal reports of conscious awareness, ignoring the study of those who could not describe their introspections (e.g., animals, children, mentally disabled). e) An alternative to structuralism, pioneered by the German psychologist Max Wertheimer, focused on how the mind understands experiences as organized wholes (Gestalts) rather than sums of simple parts. 2. Functionalism: Minds with a purpose a) William James disagreed with structuralism. To him, mental life was about what mental processes do for a person’s adaptation and survival. b) John Dewey, an American philosopher, was influenced by James and founded the school of functionalism, which led to many advances in education. c) Functionalism focused on learned habits that enabled organisms to adapt to their environment to function effectively. The essential functionalist question is, “What is the function or purpose of behavior?” 3. The legacy of structuralism and functionalism: Both live on, and today psychologists employ a variety of methods to study both the structure and function of mental life and behavior. E. Women as Pioneering Researchers 1. Women made substantial early contributions to the field of psychology. 2. Mary Whiton Calkins established one of the first psychology labs in the United States and invented important techniques for studying memory. 3. Margaret Floy Washburn performed early research in cross-species psychology, was the first women to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, and the second woman to lead the American Psychological Association. 4. Helen Thompson Wooley pioneered research into gender differences. 5. Leta Stetter Hollingworth researched gender differences. In this area, her studies included topics such as differences in intelligence and creativity. F. Perspectives on Psychology 1. The breadth of psychology can be illustrated by the many perspectives psychologists have when examining behavior and mental processes. Each perspective influences what a particular psychologist examines, what tools he or she uses to examine people, and where he or she looks for psychological influences. 2. Contemporary psychology can be divided into seven perspectives: psychodynamic , behaviorist , humanistic , cognitive , biological , evolutionary , and sociocultural . Each of these approaches espouses points of view and sets of assumptions that influence both what will be studied and how it will be investigated. Most psychologists’ perspectives result from a blend of these perspectives. 3. Psychodynamic perspective: This perspective holds that behavior results from powerful inner forces beyond our immediate awareness. These forces include innate instincts, biological drives, and attempts to resolve conflicts between personal needs and society’s demands. The purpose of behavior, according to this view, is to reduce tension. a) Psychodynamic principles of motivation originated with Sigmund Freud , a Viennese physician, and his work with mentally disturbed patients. Psychodynamics have influenced many areas in psychology. b) Freud emphasized the early childhood as the timeframe during which personality was formed. c) Psychodynamic principles have since broadened to include the role of social influences and interpersonal interactions over the life span.

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    Chapter 1: Psychology and Life 5 4. Behaviorist perspective: Behaviorists seek to understand how environmental stimuli influence behavior, reducing behavior into antecedents, behavioral responses, and consequences of behavior. a) Antecedent environmental conditions refer to the state of the environment before a behavior is performed. b) Behavioral response , the main object of study, refers to the action to be understood, predicted, and controlled. c) Consequence refers to what results from the behavioral response. d) John Watson founded behaviorism. He argued that psychology should seek laws that govern observable behavior across species. e) Since Watson, behaviorists have studied observable behavior, often using animals to control the conditions of experimentation more completely than they can with human participants. f) B. F. Skinner was a later influential behaviorist. He also argued that principles derived from animal research should be applied to humans. g) Behaviorist principles have yielded more humane approaches to the education of children and to the treatment of behavior disorders through the use of positive reinforcement, a more effective tool in learning than punishment. 5. Humanistic perspective: Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s and countered the psychodynamic and behaviorist perspectives. Humanists suggested that humans are not controlled by unconscious drives or the external environment, but that they have choice. The main task of humans is to strive for growth and development of their potential. a) Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were influential humanistic psychologists. Rogers believed that humans have a natural tendency toward psychological well-being. Maslow also believed people maintained a drive toward maximizing their fullest potential (self-actualization). b) Humanistic psychology is holistic, not reductionistic (reducing to elements that drive behavior). It examines the human as a whole and does not attempt to reduce mental life to elemental parts. 6. Cognitive perspective: Cognitive psychologists are most interested in human thought and all the processes of knowing, such as attending, thinking, remembering, and understanding. a) Cognitive psychologists view behavior as partly determined by past experiences but also influenced by an individual’s inner world of thought and imagination. An individual’s subjective reality is more important than the objective reality that behaviorists strive to capture. b) Jean Piaget, working in developmental psychology, and Noam Chomsky, working in language acquisition, were two influential psychologists who pioneered cognitive research and theories. c) Today, cognitive psychologist study higher mental processes such as perception, memory, language use, problem solving, and decision making. 7. Biological perspective: The biological perspective attempts to explain behavior in terms of the influence of genes, the brain, the nervous system, and the endocrine system by examining underlying physical structures and processes. a) From the biological perspective, even the most complex behavior can be understood by decomposing the behavior into smaller units, such as the firing of neurons in the brain. b) A unifying theme for biological researchers is that, although the environment and experience can modify behavior by altering underlying biological structures and processes, behavior originates from biological forces. c) Behavioral neuroscience is a multidisciplinary field that attempts to understand brain processes that influence behaviors, such as sensation, learning, and emotion. d) Cognitive neuroscience is a multidisciplinary field that attempts to understand brain processes that influence human cognitive functions such as memory, language, and learning. 8. Evolutionary perspective: The evolutionary perspective extends the idea of natural selection to explain how mental abilities evolved. a) Evolutionary psychologists identify adaptive problems that early humans may have encountered, such as avoiding predators, finding food, reproducing, and raising children, and then generate inferences about the mental processes that might have evolved in response to these problems. b) Evolutionary psychology is different from other perspectives in that it has a much longer temporal focus (millions of years) than other perspectives. 9. Sociocultural perspective: This perspective focuses on cross-cultural differences in the causes and consequences of behavior. Partly in response to American psychology’s reliance on white, middle- class college students as the subject matter of psychology, cultural psychologists cross national

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    Instructor’s Manual for Psychology and Life, 20 th Edition 6 boundaries in an attempt to understand how cultural groups differ on standard measures of mental processes and to understand what new measures and concepts might more accurately capture and describe the mental life of various groups. a) Important concepts investigated by sociocultural psychologists include perceptions, human development, emotions, social norms, and the notion of “the self.” b) Sociocultural psychologists point out that psychological principles derived from one culture cannot be automatically applied to other sociocultural groups. ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO (Text p. 14) Lecture Launchers/Discussion Topics: ¾ Psychologists and Prescription Privileges ¾ Careers in Psychology Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises: ¾ Psychologists’ Twenty Questions ¾ Are Psychologists Scientists? Web Resources: ¾ Majoring in Psychology ¾ Careers in Psychology ¾ Major Professional Organizations Outline I. What Psychologists Do A. When most people define what a psychologist does, they think of a clinical psychologist who works with clients with psychological problems and with problems of living. However, psychologists can specialize in a diversity of subfields, such as clinical, cognitive, personality, developmental, social, industrial, school, sports, and health psychology. B. Psychologists can also be defined in terms of the focus of their work, balancing emphases between research (advancing science) and application (putting science into practice). Many clinical psychologists have primarily research careers, despite our often thinking of them as applying knowledge to improve people’s lives. C. At the start of the twenty-first century, psychology has become more international and more diverse in its composition of researchers and practitioners. ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents HOW TO USE THIS TEXT (Text p. 16) Outline I. How to Use This Text A. General study strategies to increase academic performance. 1. Study strategies include: a) Sufficient study time b) Keeping track of time spent studying c) Actively studying d) Spaced learning/avoidance of cramming e) Getting study-centered: finding an appropriate location

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    Chapter 1: Psychology and Life 7 2. Appropriate study techniques (PQ4R) include: a) Previewing the material b) Making your own questions c) Reading carefully d) Reflecting on the material e) Reciting to demonstrate your recall f) Reviewing the questions you originally developed ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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    Instructor’s Manual for Psychology and Life, 20 th Edition 8 KEY TERMS Behavior Behavioral Data Behavioral Neuroscience Behaviorism Behaviorist Perspective Biological Perspective Cognitive Neuroscience Cognitive Perspective Evolutionary Perspective Functionalism Gestalt Psychology Humanistic Perspective Introspection Psychodynamic Perspective Psychology Scientific Method Sociocultural Perspective Structuralism ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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    Chapter 1: Psychology and Life 9 CHANGES FROM PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE, NINETEENTH EDITION TO PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE, TWENTIETH EDITION Chapter 1: Psychology and Life ƒ New Critical Thinking in Your Life: Does “Comfort Food” Really Give Comfort? ƒ Updated discussion of structuralism and functionalism. ƒ Updated figures on distributions of degrees and work settings for psychologists. ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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    Instructor’s Manual for Psychology and Life, 20 th Edition 10 LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS How Do We Know What We Know? Psychology and Common Sense African Americans and Psychology Women in the History of Psychology in America Biographical Profiles Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the Throne There Are Other Psychologies in the World Some Effects of Culture on the Individual Psychologists and Prescription Privileges Careers in Psychology ▲ Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: How Do We Know What We Know? How do you know that George Washington was the first president of the United States? Or that you really have a stomach? Dependence on observation is one of the hallmarks of science, but it is not the only way humans acquire knowledge. There are, in fact, many questions that cannot be answered by scientific methods and for which other means of acquiring knowledge are more appropriate. Begin by asking the following questions: ƒ How do you know that George Washington was the first president of the United States? ƒ How do you know that you really have a stomach? ƒ What makes you so sure the sun will rise tomorrow? ƒ How do you know the color of the shirt I’m wearing? ƒ How can you be sure that there aren’t little creatures inside computers that are responsible for the things computers do? ƒ Are you sure you don’t have a big hole in the back of your pants or skirt? Authority is one source of knowledge. We know, or believe, that Washington was the first president because we trust the authority of historians and history books. During the centuries that Western civilization was dominated by the Church, the authority of holy writings was believed to be the only dependable way of knowing. Reason was considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge. If you say, “All humans have stomachs; I am human; therefore, I have a stomach,” you have used deductive reasoning. If you say, “The sun rose today, yesterday, the day before yesterday, and for as long as I or anyone can remember,” you are using inductive reasoning. Observation is still another way of acquiring knowledge. You know the color of my shirt because you can see the shirt. You assume that you do not have a hole in the posterior of your clothing because you have not observed stares and giggles. One might use any of these ways of knowing to deny the existence of little creatures in computers. People you perceive to be authorities about computer innards may have told you how they work. You may have reasoned that creatures need nourishment and there is no food supply inside microprocessors. Or you may have looked inside a computer and failed to see little creatures waiting to solve your problems. But there is no way one can absolutely refute the computer-creature hypothesis; so if you want to keep your computer running, maybe you should find out what the little creatures eat. All these ways of knowing—authority, reason, and observation—are used by scientists, but observation must be the basis for knowledge that is scientific. Science puts greater emphasis on evidence provided by the senses than on authority of others or reasoning. Science relies on empirical evidence. An extension of this activity might involve a discussion of some of the following contradictory beliefs: Birds of a feather flock together .....................................................................Opposites attract Absence makes the heart grow fonder ................................................ Out of sight, out of mind You can’t teach an old dog new tricks .................................................... Never too old to learn

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    Chapter 1: Psychology and Life 11 Often students will have anecdotal stories about each belief. Ask students to think about their beliefs from an empirical point of view. You may want to facilitate discussion by providing students with the following questions: Can you rely on one person’s account to believe in a phenomenon? How might each set of beliefs be tested empirically? When will you “believe” in a certain phenomenon? ► Return to Lecture Guide: What Make Psychology Unique? ◄ Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1 Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Psychology and Common Sense A common refrain voiced by laypeople and scientists is that most, if not all, of behavioral science “is just common sense.” Introductory psychology students are particularly apt to make this claim, given that much of their prior exposure to psychology is likely to have been very common-sensical (though perhaps not well-established) claims by a variety of “professionals” on the talk-show circuit. In a nutshell, it’s difficult to counter the “common-sense” stigma when so much of behavior seems to be explainable at an intuitive surface level. Mark Leary shares some suggestions for discussing this issue with your students. It is true that the subject matter of psychology is much more familiar to most people than the subject matter of subatomic physics or gastroendocrinological biology; we see behavior all around us, but rarely stumble over a gluon. Psychology would be an odd science of thought and behavior if it only considered thoughts and behaviors completely foreign to people’s experiences, or if its findings always ran counter to most people’s beliefs. But neither greater visibility of subject matter nor popular consensus guarantees greater understanding. Many people believed wholeheartedly in flat earths and cheese moons, only to find their common-sense views dismantled in the face of scientific evidence. So too with psychology. Although most people would like to believe that large rewards produce greater liking for a boring task, that the behavior of men and women is determined by their biology, or that absence makes the heart grow fonder, researchers studying cognitive dissonance, sex-role stereotypes, and close relationships would be happy to share their findings to the contrary. In short, the popularity of a common-sense belief may not always support the weight of scientific evidence. More importantly, psychologists (like all scientists) are primarily engaged in the task of explaining behavior, rather than merely cataloging it. The difference between theory and description—“why” versus “what”—echoes the difference between science and common sense. Common sense certainly helps describe what takes place in behavior, but it doesn’t compel us to understand why it takes place. The development of theory in understanding behavior sets science apart from everyday, common-sense accounts. Leary, M. (1995). Behavioral research methods (2nd ed., pp. 24–25). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. ► Return to Lecture Guide: What Make Psychology Unique? ◄ Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1 Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: African Americans and Psychology Like women, African Americans faced many obstacles to their education and participation in psychology. Most white institutions would not accept African American students, and when they were able to enroll, they often experienced discrimination. In addition, few undergraduate black colleges offered a major in psychology until after the 1940s. Howard University, the only major black university offering graduate study, awarded 32 Ph.D. degrees to African Americans from 1920 to 1950. During the same period only eight African Americans earned a Ph.D. from one of the ten most prestigious white universities. Not only was earning the Ph.D. difficult, employment opportunities were scarce for African American psychologists since neither white universities nor organizations in the private sector would hire them. Most taught at black colleges where opportunities to engage in research were limited, thus restricting opportunities for professional recognition. The situation for African American students has improved dramatically in recent years. Kenneth B. Clark, best known for his research on the effects of racial segregation, became the first African American elected as APA president in 1970.

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    Instructor’s Manual for Psychology and Life, 20 th Edition 12 Guthrie, R. V. (1976). Even the rat was white: A historical view of psychology . New York: Harper and Row. Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (1996). A history of modern psychology (6th ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ► Return to Lecture Guide: The Evolution of Modern Psychology ◄ Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1 Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Women in the History of Psychology in America Psychology recently has renewed its appreciation of diversity in human behavior. Part of that diversity includes celebrating the accomplishments and contributions of women to the field of psychology. Share with your students the stories of some key figures from psychology’s history: ƒ Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) attended Harvard University and worked with William James, but because Harvard did not officially admit women into graduate programs, Calkins never received a Ph.D. from Harvard. At best, Harvard offered her the degree from its sister school Radcliffe. She refused, stating that she ought to be given the degree from the institution where she earned it. Calkins collaborated with Edmund Sanford from neighboring Clark University on a variety of research projects. At that time, women with advanced degrees or training primarily received faculty positions at female colleges, such as Wellesley and Vassar Colleges. Calkins received a position at Wellesley College in 1887, and established a prolific laboratory in 1891 producing short- term memory research (Madigan & O’Hara, 1992). In 1906, Calkins was the first woman elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA). ƒ Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first person, male or female, to receive a Ph.D. from Edward B. Titchener in 1884, the leading structuralist in American experimental psychology at that time (Goodwin, 1999). She was also the first female to receive a Ph.D. in the United States. Interestingly, Washburn never believed Titchener taught her much, as she became a leading comparative psychologist at Vassar College. She produced her most influential work in The Animal Mind in 1908, and in 1921, she was elected the second woman president of APA. She suffered a cerebral hemorrhage in 1937, and died from its complications in 1939 (Scarborough & Furumoto, 1987). ƒ Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930) was a mathematician who developed an interest in visual perception and made great contributions to theories of color vision (Furumoto, 1992). She married a math professor from Columbia University, and she occasionally taught adjunct courses there. However, she was rarely paid. Like Calkins, she did not receive her Ph.D. although she had completed all of the required work. Johns Hopkins University finally granted her the degree shortly before her death. She accepted the degree in person. ƒ At the turn of the 20th century, one popular belief held that there was more variability in intelligence in men than in women. One implication of this belief was that even the brightest of women would never be as bright or even “outshine” the brightest of men. African American psychologist Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939) challenged these beliefs with her research which showed no evidence that the distribution of intelligence test scores differed between men and women (Hollingworth, 1914). She also challenged the popular belief that women’s intellectual abilities were affected by their menstrual cycles, again finding no statistical evidence to support such claims (Silverman, 1992). Hollingworth’s contributions are often seen as the seedlings for the formal study of the psychology of women. ƒ African American psychologist Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983) received her bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Howard University, and her Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1944. She is well-known for her studies of racial differences in racial identity and self concept (Clark & Clark, 1950). In the 1940s and 1950s racial segregation was becoming institutionalized, and Clark became interested in the effects of segregation on African American children. She conducted a series of studies in which African American and white children were shown black and white dolls. The children were first asked to pick the doll they most looked like, establishing a measure of racial identity. Then, children were asked which doll they would most like to play with. Both white and African American children preferred the white doll, suggesting for both races of children a preference and perhaps more value on being white. Clark’s work was considered and noted in the Supreme Court’s 1954 ruling in Brown v. Board of Education desegregation case, which ruled that public school segregation was unconstitutional. Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1950). Emotional factors in racial identification and preference in Negro children. Journal of Negro Education, 19, 341–350. Furumoto, L. (1992). Joining separate spheres: Christine Ladd-Franklin, woman-scientist. American Psychologist, 47, 175–182.

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    Chapter 1: Psychology and Life 13 Furumoto, L., & Scarborough, E. (1992). Placing women in the history of psychology: The first American women psychologists. In J. S. Bohan (Ed.) Seldom Seen, Rarely Heard (pp. 337–353). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Goodwin, C. J. (1999). A history of modern psychology. New York: Wiley. Hollingworth, L. S. (1914). Variability as related to sex differences in achievement. American Journal of Sociology, 19, 510–530. Madigan, S., & O’Hara, R. (1992). Short-term memory at the turn of the century. American Psychologist, 47, 107–174. Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987). Untold lives: The first generation of American women psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press. Silverman, L. K. (1992). Leta Stetter Hollingworth: Champion of the psychology of women and gifted children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 20–27. ► Return to Lecture Guide: The Evolution of Modern Psychology ◄ Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1 Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Biographical Profiles Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Born in Neckarau, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt was the fourth child of a Lutheran minister. Despite coming from a family that boasted numerous scholars, scientists, and physicians, Wundt initially was not a good student. After he dropped out of one high school, a teacher suggested that a reasonable goal for Wundt would be a career in the postal service. Wundt’s scholastic abilities improved, however, and in 1855 he graduated at the top of his class in medical school. Wundt then went to Berlin to study physiology with Johannes Müller, and he subsequently decided to become an experimental physiologist himself. Wundt then returned to the University of Heidelberg, where he worked as an assistant for Herman von Helmholtz. It was at Heidelberg that Wundt taught his first course in psychology. The year was 1862. In 1879, at the University of Leipzig, where he held a chair in philosophy, Wundt established the Institute for Experimental Psychology, the first laboratory whose formal purpose was the scientific investigation of the human mind. Wundt is one of the most prolific contributors to the field of psychology ever. It is estimated that between the years of 1853 and 1920, Wundt wrote 53,735 pages of text. Wundt was not only a voracious writer; he was also responsible for training numerous researchers, some of whom, such as Edward Titchener, brought versions of Wundt’s psychology to America. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) Sigmund Freud was born in Pribor, Czechoslovakia, in 1856. Although Freud was a gifted student, it took him eight years to finish his medical degree at the University of Vienna, partly because he was interested in so many topics. Freud first pursued a career as a neurologist, but financial concerns forced him into general medical practice. In cooperation with his friend Joseph Breuer, Freud began to treat hysterical women. This is unusual, because at the time there was no known cure for hysteria, which is now known as a conversion disorder. Through trial and error and feedback from his clients, Breuer and Freud developed the technique known as psychoanalysis. Its fundamental rule is honesty; clients must relay all thoughts and feelings uncensored to the analyst. Clients then follow their stream of thought wherever it may lead, a process known as free association. In the course of free association, clients often uncover traumatic events in the past, and, upon reliving these events, often experience relief from their symptoms. Freud’s first major work, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), detailed the process of dream interpretation, which he felt was the “royal road to the unconscious.” Although it took six years to sell the first 600 copies printed, this work was reprinted eight times during Freud’s lifetime. Although the technique of psychoanalysis is perhaps Freud’s most important legacy, he made many other substantial contributions to psychology. These include the recognition of the importance of sexuality and unconscious processes, a fully developed system of personality, and an appreciation for the conflict between individual desires and the constraints of society. His work has influenced so many aspects of our thinking that he is often not given full credit for the development of his ideas. Freud’s many detractors are quick to point out that his theories are not based on empirical research. While this is true, just because they lack empirical evidence does not mean that they are wrong, only that they are less likely to be right. Because of the breadth of his intellectual contributions, he remains the most cited psychologist in Psychology and Life, 16th Edition , and most comparable texts.

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    Instructor’s Manual for Psychology and Life, 20 th Edition 14 William James (1842–1910) William James, often considered the father of American psychology, was born in New York City, but spent much of his childhood traveling between the United States and Europe, where he attended several private schools. James’ interest in such varied fields as philosophy, religion, and science were cultivated at home in an enriched environment shared with his brother Henry James, the famous author. William James struggled to find a vocation that mated his various interests, trying his hand at art (his paintings have appeared on the cover of recent editions of American Psychologist ), chemistry, and, finally, medicine. He received his M.D. from Harvard in 1868. In 1872, James began teaching physiology at Harvard but was preoccupied by his ongoing and deep interest in such philosophical issues as free will and determinism. Though James considered himself a temporary dabbler in the discipline of psychology, his two-volume textbook, Principles of Psychology (1890), stood as the field’s definitive textbook through the first half of this century. It is still considered one of the best-written texts on psychology and a source of many original ideas. James’ contributions to psychology include the notion of a stream of consciousness, the importance of habit and instinct, and a complex theory of the self, theory of emotion, and opening the boundaries of psychology to include topics such as religious beliefs. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born and raised in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, and received a bachelor’s degree in English from Hamilton College in New York. Skinner enrolled in the experimental psychology program at Harvard and studied under E.G. Boring, earning his masters degree in 1930 and Ph.D. in 1931. In 1936, he began his academic career at the University of Minnesota; then, in 1945, he took a position as chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, however, Harvard offered him a position, which he accepted, and he remained there for the rest of his life. Skinner died of leukemia in 1990. While Skinner was at Harvard, he was heavily influenced by the work of John B. Watson. From this influence, Skinner dedicated his life’s work to studying the relationship between reinforcement and observable behavior. Throughout his career, he insisted that psychology be a scientific, empirically-driven discipline. He is considered by many to be one of the most important figures in twentieth century psychology, and his contribution to both clinical and experimental psychology is evident in the work of psychologists who followed his lead, and to this day, extend his work in associative learning research. The principles of reinforcement that he outlined were built on by clinical psychologists and applied to the conceptualization and treatment of mental disorders. The application of behaviorism to clinical psychology was not short-lived, as empirically supported treatments for anxiety disorders (e.g., panic disorder, simple phobia) and child conduct problems are based upon behavioral principles. ► Return to Lecture Guide: The Evolution of Modern Psychology ◄ Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1 Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the Throne John B. Watson was a very famous man in his day—something many students never realize, as he usually gets only a few short paragraphs in introductory psychology texts. In fact, at the end of his career in psychology he was an esteemed professor at the world-renowned Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. At one time, he was recognized as an authority on caring for babies, much as Dr. Spock and Dr. Brazelton would later become household words. He was married, a father, and respected in his field. All of that ended when he was fired over his affair with a beautiful and intelligent graduate student, Rosalie Raynor. Mary Watson, the wronged wife, insisted that the affair stop, as did Watson’s employers. But neither Watson nor Raynor wanted the affair to end, and finally Johns Hopkins insisted that he resign. The subsequent divorce from Mary was front page news at the time. ► Return to Lecture Guide: The Evolution of Modern Psychology ◄ Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1 Table of Contents

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    Chapter 1: Psychology and Life 15 Lecture/Discussion: There Are Other Psychologies in the World While introductory psychology books have enough to cover without taking on the whole world, it is important to remember that Western Psychology is not the only game in town. All cultures have implicit or explicit psychological theories, theories of how the mind works, that have been developing for thousands of years. Some, like Mayan theories, were almost completely lost after their cultures were all but wiped out by European invaders. Others, like Tibetan Abhidharma, are written down, have continued to develop and have found overlap with Western psychological traditions. Tibetan Psychology: http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec03/tibetan.html http://www.tibetanclassics.org Japanese Psychology: http://web-jpn.org/links/education/academic/psychology.html http://www.todoinstitute.org/ ► Return to Lecture Guide: The Evolution of Modern Psychology ◄ Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1 ▲ Return to Chapter 1 Table of Contents Lecture/Discussion: Some Effects of Culture on the Individual One aspect of cross-cultural psychology addresses the similarities and differences among cultures around the globe. However, in our modern world, diversity is no longer restricted to comparing the culture we know with one we consider to be exotic or strange. A more relevant issue is to address diversity within our own society, and a critical element in that regard is to explore the effect of cultural intermingling on individuals. Many researchers have done just that. For example, Jean Phinney has conducted extensive research on various aspects of ethnic identity, particularly among college students (see, e.g., Phinney, 1989, 1990; Phinney & Alipuria, 1990, 1996). She has correctly noted that “ethnicity is a complex multidimensional construct that, by itself, explains little” (1996, p. 918). Among the many elements Phinney notes to play an important role in understanding ethnicity are cultural norms and values (she defines ethnicity in the United States as “broad groupings of…[people] on the basis of both race and culture of origin,” but excluding the “dominant White majority,” pp. 918–919). In a recent paper, Phinney and Madden (submitted for publication) looked at the relationship between intergenerational value discrepancies and life satisfaction for three groups of immigrant families: Armenian, Vietnamese, and Mexican. They found that generally, the greater the discrepancy between parents and their adolescent children in terms of language and peer group affiliation, the lower the life satisfaction. Thus, when children lacked fluency in their ethnic language and did not associate extensively with other teens from their ethnic group, they expressed greater dissatisfaction with their lives. Interestingly, this was totally independent of how well their parents spoke English, leading the investigators to believe that it is not a matter of being unable to communicate with parents, but rather, that the “lack of proficiency…is part of a broader pattern of lower involvement in their ethnic culture…that leads to greater differences with their parents” (p. 8). Other researchers have approached issues of life satisfaction from other vantage points. For example, John Berry (1997a) describes four different strategies of acculturation when dominant and non-dominant groups come together to form culturally plural societies. Berry notes that the groups, and their individual members, must resolve two critical issues: first, is it considered to be of value to maintain one’s identity and characteristics, and second, is it considered to be of value to maintain relationships with the larger society? Responding “yes” to both questions results in integration (or pluralism). Responding “yes” to the first, but “no” to the second, will result in either separation (if that is the choice of the non-dominant group) or segregation (refusal of the dominant group to allow entry by the non-dominant group). When groups, or individuals within groups, deny the value of their own identity and characteristics and opt instead for those of the dominant group, the result is assimilation. The final strategy, rejecting the value of one’s own group as well of those of the larger society, leads to marginalization, a sense of being “on the fringes” of society. Berry (1994) noted that individuals who adopt this fourth strategy of marginalization “lose cultural and psychological contact with both their traditional culture and the larger society. They characteristically strike out against the larger society and experience feelings of alienation, loss of identity, and

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