Lecture Notes For Psychology And Life, 20th Edition

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1Chapter 1PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE▲TABLE OF CONTENTSTo access the resource listed, click on the hot linked title or pressCTRL + clickTo return to the Table of Contents, click on▲Return to Table of ContentsTo return to a section of the Lecture Guide, click on►Return to Lecture Guide►LECTURE GUIDE¾What Makes Psychology Unique? (p. 2)¾The Evolution of Modern Psychology (p. 3)¾What Psychologists Do (p. 6)¾How to Use This Text (p. 6)▼FULL CHAPTER RESOURCES¾Key Terms (p. 8)¾Changes from 19th Edition to 20th Edition (p. 9)¾Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics (p. 10)¾Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises (p. 18)¾Handout Masters (p. 22)¾Forty Studies That Changed Psychology (p. 25)¾Web Resources (p. 26)¾Video Resources (p. 30)¾Multimedia Resources (p. 32)¾PowerPoint Slides (p. 33)¾Accessing Resources (p. 33)

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Instructor’s Manual forPsychology and Life, 20thEdition2LECTURE GUIDEWHAT MAKES PSYCHOLOGY UNIQUE? (Text p. 2)Lecture Launchers/Discussion Topics:¾How Do We Know What We Know?¾Psychology and Common SenseClassroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises:¾Misconceptions About Psychology¾Psychology’s Goals Applied to Matchmaking¾Promoting Cultural AwarenessWeb Resources:¾General ResourcesOutlineI.What Makes Psychology Unique?A.Basic Definitions1.Psychologyis the scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes. As such,psychologists are behavioral scientists.2.Thescientific methodis the orderly, analytical process used in all sciences to analyze and solveproblems.3.Behavioris observable, measurable action. It is the means by which both animals and humans adjust totheir environment.4.Most often, the subject of scientific analysis in psychology is anindividual. This can include studyingbehavior that is affected by developmental change, as well as by external environmental change (e.g.,the influence of interactions with other organisms).5.Mental processes/cognitionrefer to the private, internal workings of the mind.6.Psychology, the fieldis a comparison to areas both inside and outside the social sciences.B.The Goals of Psychology1.The primary goal of psychology is to improve our understanding of behavior. Hence, the goals of thepsychologist conducting basic research are todescribe,explain,predict,orcontrolbehavior.2.Accuratelydescribingbehavior requires the following:a)First, the psychologist must observe and accurately measure the behavior.Behavioral dataincludes the psychologist’s report of observations about the behavior and the conditions underwhich the behavior occurs.b)The type ofbehavioral datacollected depends on thelevel of analysis.The focus of observationscan range from broad, general, and global aspects all the way to minute details of the organismunder study.c)Objectivityrefers to the scientific necessity to record behavioral data as facts—as they reallyexist—not as we hope them to exist. Objectivity helps ensure the advancement of scientificunderstanding of behavior, free ofsubjective,personal biases, prejudices, and expectations thatwould distort the data collected.C.Explainingbehavior requires that explanations deliberately go beyond the basic description of what can beobserved.1.Psychologists do not want to justdescribe; they want explainhoworwhya particular behavior occurs.2.Behavior results from a combination of many internal factors (e.g., intelligence, developmental stage,physical health, genetics) and external factors (e.g., peer pressure, socioeconomic status) that allinfluence one another.3.Psychologists mustsynthesizeobserved behavior with existing scientific knowledge to arrive atcausalexplanationsabout the behavior (e.g., Observation: The roommate does not actively participate inclass. Explanation: Because he or she is also very quiet in many other social situations, perhaps hisbehavior in class is“caused”by his shyness.).D.Predictingbehavior involves statements about the likelihood of a specific behavior occurring.

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Life31.Scientificprediction is based on an understanding of relationships between behaviors and themechanisms that link those behaviors to certain predictors. Scientists derive this information bysystematically varying the conditions that lead to certain behaviors.E.For many psychologists,controllingbehavior is the ultimate, central goal.1.This is particularly true for applied psychologists, whose goal is to improve individuals’ quality of life.2.Controlling behavior means influencing a behavior to happen or not to happen, and influencing thenature of the behavior as it is being performed.3.ThroughoutPsychology and Lifeare examples of how psychologists work to change or help peoplecontrol behavior (e.g., improving mental health, helping people change unhealthy behaviors, teachingparenting skills).▲Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsTHE EVOLUTION OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY (Text p. 5)Lecture Launchers/Discussion Topics:¾African Americans and Psychology¾Women in the History of Psychology in America¾Biographical Profiles¾Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the Throne¾There Are Other Psychologies in the World¾Some Effects of Culture on the IndividualClassroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises:¾Perspectives in PsychologyForty Studies That Changed Psychology:¾Watch Out for the Visual Cliff!Web Resources:¾History of PsychologyOutlineI.The Evolution of Modern PsychologyA.At the core of this historical review is one simple principle: Ideas Matter(ideas influence the manner inwhich people think, feel, and behave)B.Psychology’s Historical Foundation1.Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato pondered psychological questions about the mind and theessence of life.2.Later philosophers developed ideas that continue to show up in today’s psychology. These includeJohn Locke’s development of empiricism and Immanuel Kant’s development of nativist views.C.Psychology’s Historical Figures1.In 1879, in Leipzig, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt founded the first formal laboratory devoted toexperimental psychology (sensation and perception).2.In 1883, the first experimental psychology laboratory in the United States was founded at JohnsHopkins University.3.Edward Titchener, a student of Wundt, became an influential early psychologist with his laboratory atCornell University, founded in 1892.4.In 1890, William James, brother of novelist Henry James, wrote the two-volume work,The Principlesof Psychology,which many experts consider the most important psychology text ever written.5.In 1892, G. Stanley Hall founded the American Psychological Association.6.With the emergence of the field of experimental psychology, debate began over the proper methodsand subject matter of the new field.

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Instructor’s Manual forPsychology and Life, 20thEdition4D.Early Psychology’s Methods: Structuralism versus Functionalism1.Structuralism: The contents of the minda)Edward Titchener usedintrospectionto understand the “what” of mental contents rather than the“why” or “how” of thinking. This approach came to be known as structuralism, the study of thestructure of mind and behavior.b)Structuralism was based on the assumption that all human mental experience could be understoodas the combination of simple elements.c)The goal of structuralism was to reveal the underlying structure of the human mind by analyzingthe basic elements of sensation and other experiences that form mental life.d)Structuralism was attacked primarily on three grounds:(i)It wasreductionistic, reducing all complex human experience to simple sensations.(ii) It waselemental,seeking to combine parts into a whole rather than study the variety ofbehaviors directly.(iii) It wasmentalistic,studying only verbal reports of conscious awareness, ignoring the study ofthose who could not describe their introspections (e.g., animals, children, mentally disabled).e)An alternative to structuralism, pioneered by the German psychologist Max Wertheimer, focusedon how the mind understands experiences as organized wholes (Gestalts) rather than sums ofsimple parts.2.Functionalism: Minds with a purposea)William James disagreed with structuralism. To him, mental life was about what mental processesdo for a person’s adaptation and survival.b)John Dewey, an American philosopher, was influenced by James and founded the school offunctionalism, which led to many advances in education.c)Functionalism focused on learned habits that enabled organisms to adapt to their environment tofunction effectively. The essential functionalist question is, “What is the function or purpose ofbehavior?”3.The legacy of structuralism and functionalism:Both live on, and today psychologists employ a varietyof methods to study both the structure and function of mental life and behavior.E.Women as Pioneering Researchers1.Women made substantial early contributions to the field of psychology.2.Mary Whiton Calkins established one of the first psychology labs in the United States and inventedimportant techniques for studying memory.3.Margaret Floy Washburn performed early research in cross-species psychology, was the first women toreceive a Ph.D. in psychology, and the second woman to lead the American Psychological Association.4.Helen Thompson Wooley pioneered research into gender differences.5.Leta Stetter Hollingworth researched gender differences. In this area, her studies included topics suchas differences in intelligence and creativity.F.Perspectives on Psychology1.The breadth of psychology can be illustrated by the many perspectives psychologists have whenexamining behavior and mental processes. Each perspective influences what a particular psychologistexamines, what tools he or she uses to examine people, and where he or she looks for psychologicalinfluences.2.Contemporary psychology can be divided into seven perspectives:psychodynamic,behaviorist,humanistic,cognitive,biological,evolutionary,andsociocultural.Each of these approaches espousespoints of view and sets of assumptions that influence both what will be studied and how it will beinvestigated. Most psychologists’ perspectives result from a blend of these perspectives.3.Psychodynamic perspective:This perspective holds that behavior results from powerful inner forcesbeyond our immediate awareness. These forces include innate instincts, biological drives, and attemptstoresolveconflicts betweenpersonal needsand society’sdemands. The purpose of behavior,according to this view, is to reduce tension.a)Psychodynamic principles of motivation originated withSigmund Freud, a Viennese physician,and his work with mentally disturbed patients. Psychodynamics have influenced many areas inpsychology.b)Freud emphasized the early childhood as the timeframe during which personality was formed.c)Psychodynamic principles have since broadened to include the role of social influences andinterpersonal interactions over the life span.

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Life54.Behaviorist perspective:Behaviorists seektounderstand howenvironmental stimuli influencebehavior, reducing behavior into antecedents, behavioral responses, and consequences of behavior.a)Antecedentenvironmental conditions refer to the state of the environment before a behavior isperformed.b)Behavioral response,the main object of study, refers to the action to be understood, predicted,and controlled.c)Consequencerefers to what results from the behavioral response.d)John Watson founded behaviorism. He argued that psychology should seek laws that governobservable behavior across species.e)Since Watson, behaviorists have studied observable behavior, often using animals to control theconditions of experimentation more completely than they can with human participants.f)B. F. Skinner was a later influential behaviorist. He also argued that principles derived fromanimal research should be applied to humans.g)Behaviorist principles have yielded more humane approaches to the education of children and tothe treatment of behavior disorders through the use of positive reinforcement, a more effective toolin learning than punishment.5.Humanisticperspective:Humanisticpsychologyemergedinthe1950sandcounteredthepsychodynamic and behaviorist perspectives. Humanists suggested that humans are not controlled byunconscious drives or the external environment, but that they have choice. The main task of humans isto strive for growth and development of their potential.a)Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were influential humanistic psychologists. Rogers believed thathumans have a natural tendency toward psychological well-being. Maslow also believed peoplemaintained a drive toward maximizing their fullest potential (self-actualization).b)Humanistic psychology is holistic, not reductionistic (reducing to elements that drive behavior). Itexamines the human as a whole and does not attempt to reduce mental life to elemental parts.6.Cognitive perspective:Cognitive psychologists are most interested in human thought and all theprocesses of knowing, such as attending, thinking, remembering, and understanding.a)Cognitivepsychologistsviewbehavioraspartlydeterminedbypastexperiencesbutalsoinfluenced by an individual’s inner world of thought and imagination. An individual’s subjectivereality is more important than the objective reality that behaviorists strive to capture.b)Jean Piaget, working in developmental psychology, and Noam Chomsky, working in languageacquisition, were two influential psychologists who pioneered cognitive research and theories.c)Today,cognitivepsychologist study highermental processessuchasperception,memory,language use, problem solving, and decision making.7.Biological perspective:The biological perspective attempts to explain behavior in terms of theinfluence of genes, the brain, the nervous system, and the endocrine system by examining underlyingphysical structures and processes.a)Fromthebiologicalperspective,eventhemostcomplexbehaviorcanbeunderstoodbydecomposing the behavior into smaller units, such as the firing of neurons in the brain.b)A unifying theme for biological researchers is that, although the environment and experience canmodify behavior by altering underlying biological structures and processes, behavior originatesfrom biological forces.c)Behavioral neuroscienceis a multidisciplinary field that attempts to understand brain processesthat influence behaviors, such as sensation, learning, and emotion.d)Cognitive neuroscienceis a multidisciplinary field that attempts to understand brain processesthat influence human cognitive functions such as memory, language, and learning.8.Evolutionary perspective:The evolutionary perspective extends the idea of natural selection toexplain how mental abilities evolved.a)Evolutionary psychologists identify adaptive problems that early humans may have encountered,such as avoiding predators, finding food, reproducing, and raising children, and then generateinferences about the mental processes that might have evolved in response to these problems.b)Evolutionary psychology is different from other perspectives in that it has a much longer temporalfocus (millions of years) than other perspectives.9.Socioculturalperspective:This perspective focuses on cross-cultural differences in the causes andconsequences of behavior. Partly in response to American psychology’s reliance on white, middle-class college students as the subject matter of psychology, cultural psychologists cross national

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Instructor’s Manual forPsychology and Life, 20thEdition6boundaries in an attempt to understand how cultural groups differ on standard measures of mentalprocesses and to understand what new measures and concepts might more accurately capture anddescribe the mental life of various groups.a)Importantconceptsinvestigatedbysocioculturalpsychologistsincludeperceptions,humandevelopment, emotions, social norms, and the notion of “the self.”b)Sociocultural psychologists point out that psychological principles derived from one culturecannot be automatically applied to other sociocultural groups.▲Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsWHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO (Text p. 14)Lecture Launchers/Discussion Topics:¾Psychologists and Prescription Privileges¾Careers in PsychologyClassroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises:¾Psychologists’ Twenty Questions¾Are Psychologists Scientists?Web Resources:¾Majoring in Psychology¾Careers in Psychology¾Major Professional OrganizationsOutlineI.What Psychologists DoA.When most people define what a psychologist does, they think of a clinical psychologist who works withclients with psychological problems and with problems of living. However, psychologists can specialize ina diversity of subfields, such as clinical, cognitive, personality, developmental, social, industrial, school,sports, and health psychology.B.Psychologists can also be defined in terms of the focus of their work, balancing emphases between research(advancing science) and application (putting science into practice). Many clinical psychologists haveprimarily research careers, despite our often thinking of them as applying knowledge to improve people’slives.C.At the start of the twenty-first century, psychology has become more international and more diverse in itscomposition of researchers and practitioners.▲Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsHOW TO USE THIS TEXT (Text p. 16)OutlineI.How to Use This TextA.General study strategies to increase academic performance.1.Study strategies include:a)Sufficient study timeb)Keeping track of time spent studyingc)Actively studyingd)Spaced learning/avoidance of cramminge)Getting study-centered: finding an appropriate location

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Life72.Appropriate study techniques (PQ4R) include:a)Previewing the materialb)Making your own questionsc)Reading carefullyd)Reflecting on the materiale)Reciting to demonstrate your recallf)Reviewing the questions you originally developed▲Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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Instructor’s Manual forPsychology and Life, 20thEdition8KEY TERMSBehaviorBehavioral DataBehavioral NeuroscienceBehaviorismBehaviorist PerspectiveBiological PerspectiveCognitive NeuroscienceCognitive PerspectiveEvolutionary PerspectiveFunctionalismGestalt PsychologyHumanistic PerspectiveIntrospectionPsychodynamic PerspectivePsychologyScientific MethodSociocultural PerspectiveStructuralism▲Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Life9CHANGESFROMPSYCHOLOGYANDLIFE,NINETEENTHEDITIONTOPSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE, TWENTIETH EDITIONChapter 1: Psychology and LifeNew Critical Thinking in Your Life: Does “Comfort Food” Really Give Comfort?Updated discussion of structuralism and functionalism.Updated figures on distributions of degrees and work settings for psychologists.▲Return to Chapter 1: Table of Contents

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Instructor’s Manual forPsychology and Life, 20thEdition10LECTURE LAUNCHERS AND DISCUSSION TOPICSHow Do We Know What We Know?Psychology and Common SenseAfrican Americans and PsychologyWomen in the History of Psychology in AmericaBiographical ProfilesScandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the ThroneThere Are Other Psychologies in the WorldSome Effects of Culture on the IndividualPsychologists and Prescription PrivilegesCareers in Psychology▲Return to Chapter 1: Table of ContentsLecture/Discussion: How Do We Know What We Know?How do you know that George Washington was the first president of the United States? Or that you really have astomach?Dependence on observation is one of the hallmarks of science, but it is not the only way humans acquire knowledge.There are, in fact, many questions that cannot be answered by scientific methods and for which other means ofacquiring knowledge are more appropriate. Begin by asking the following questions:How do you know that George Washington was the first president of the United States?How do you know that you really have a stomach?What makes you so sure the sun will rise tomorrow?How do you know the color of the shirt I’m wearing?How can you be sure that there aren’t little creatures inside computers that are responsible for the thingscomputers do?Are you sure you don’t have a big hole in the back of your pants or skirt?Authorityis one source of knowledge. We know, or believe, that Washington was the first president becausewe trust the authority of historians and history books. During the centuries that Western civilization was dominatedby the Church, the authority of holy writings was believed to be the only dependable way of knowing.Reasonwas considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge. If you say, “Allhumans have stomachs; I am human; therefore, I have a stomach,” you have used deductive reasoning. If you say,“The sun rose today, yesterday, the day before yesterday, and for as long as I or anyone can remember,” you areusing inductive reasoning.Observationis still another way of acquiring knowledge. You know the color of my shirt because you can seethe shirt. You assume that you do not have a hole in the posterior of your clothing because you have not observedstares and giggles.One might use any of these ways of knowing to deny the existence of little creatures in computers. People youperceive to be authorities about computer innards may have told you how they work. You may have reasoned thatcreatures need nourishment and there is no food supply inside microprocessors. Or you may have looked inside acomputer and failed to see little creatures waiting to solve your problems. But there is no way one can absolutelyrefute the computer-creature hypothesis; so if you want to keep your computer running, maybe you should find outwhat the little creatures eat.All these ways of knowing—authority, reason, and observation—are used by scientists, but observation mustbe the basis for knowledge that is scientific. Science puts greater emphasis on evidence provided by the senses thanon authority of others or reasoning. Science relies on empirical evidence.An extension of this activity might involve a discussion of some of the following contradictory beliefs:Birds of a feather flock together .....................................................................Opposites attractAbsence makes the heart grow fonder ................................................ Out of sight, out of mindYou can’t teach an old dog new tricks .................................................... Never too old to learn

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Life11Often students will have anecdotal stories about each belief. Ask students to think about their beliefs from anempirical point of view. You may want to facilitate discussion by providing students with the following questions:Can you rely on one person’s account to believe in a phenomenon?How might each set of beliefs be tested empirically?When will you “believe” in a certain phenomenon?►Return to Lecture Guide: What Make Psychology Unique?◄Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1▲Return to Chapter 1 Table of ContentsLecture/Discussion: Psychology and Common SenseA common refrain voiced by laypeople and scientists is that most, if not all, of behavioral science “is just commonsense.” Introductory psychology students are particularly apt to make this claim, given that much of their priorexposure to psychology is likely to have been very common-sensical (though perhaps not well-established) claimsby a variety of “professionals” on the talk-show circuit. In a nutshell, it’s difficult to counter the “common-sense”stigma when so much of behavior seems to be explainable at an intuitive surface level.Mark Leary shares some suggestions for discussing this issue with your students. It is true that the subjectmatter of psychology is much more familiar to most people than the subject matter of subatomic physics orgastroendocrinological biology; we see behavior all around us, but rarely stumble over a gluon. Psychology wouldbe an odd science of thought and behavior if it only considered thoughts and behaviors completely foreign topeople’s experiences, or if its findings always ran counter to most people’s beliefs. But neither greater visibility ofsubject matter nor popular consensus guarantees greater understanding. Many people believed wholeheartedly in flatearths and cheese moons, only to find their common-sense views dismantled in the face of scientific evidence. Sotoo with psychology. Although most people would like to believe that large rewards produce greater liking for aboring task, that the behavior of men and women is determined by their biology, or that absence makes the heartgrow fonder, researchers studying cognitive dissonance, sex-role stereotypes, and close relationships would behappy to share their findings to the contrary. In short, the popularity of a common-sense belief may not alwayssupport the weight of scientific evidence.More importantly, psychologists (like all scientists) are primarily engaged in the task of explaining behavior,rather than merely cataloging it. The difference between theory and description—“why” versus “what”—echoes thedifference between science and common sense. Common sense certainly helps describe what takes place inbehavior, but it doesn’t compel us to understand why it takes place. The development of theory in understandingbehavior sets science apart from everyday, common-sense accounts.Leary, M. (1995).Behavioral research methods(2nd ed., pp. 24–25). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.►Return to Lecture Guide: What Make Psychology Unique?◄Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1▲Return to Chapter 1 Table of ContentsLecture/Discussion: African Americans and PsychologyLike women, African Americans faced many obstacles to their education and participation in psychology. Mostwhite institutions would not accept African American students, and when they were able to enroll, they oftenexperienced discrimination. In addition, few undergraduate black colleges offered a major in psychology until afterthe 1940s. Howard University, the only major black university offering graduate study, awarded 32 Ph.D. degrees toAfrican Americans from 1920 to 1950. During the same period only eight African Americans earned a Ph.D. fromone of the ten most prestigious white universities. Not only was earning the Ph.D. difficult, employmentopportunities were scarce for African American psychologists since neither white universities nor organizations inthe private sector would hire them. Most taught at black colleges where opportunities to engage in research werelimited, thus restricting opportunities for professional recognition. The situation for African American students hasimproved dramatically in recent years. Kenneth B. Clark, best known for his research on the effects of racialsegregation, became the first African American elected as APA president in 1970.

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Instructor’s Manual forPsychology and Life, 20thEdition12Guthrie, R. V. (1976).Even the rat was white: A historical view of psychology. New York: Harper and Row.Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (1996).A history of modern psychology(6th ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.►Return to Lecture Guide: The Evolution of Modern Psychology◄Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1▲Return to Chapter 1 Table of ContentsLecture/Discussion: Women in the History of Psychology in AmericaPsychology recently has renewed its appreciation of diversity in human behavior. Part of that diversity includescelebrating the accomplishments and contributions of women to the field of psychology. Share with your studentsthe stories of some key figures from psychology’s history:Mary Whiton Calkins(1863–1930) attended Harvard University and worked with William James, but becauseHarvard did not officially admit women into graduate programs, Calkins never received a Ph.D. from Harvard.At best, Harvard offered her the degree from its sister school Radcliffe. She refused, stating that she ought to begiven the degree from the institution where she earned it. Calkins collaborated with Edmund Sanford fromneighboring Clark University on a variety of research projects. At that time, women with advanced degrees ortraining primarily received faculty positions at female colleges, such as Wellesley and Vassar Colleges. Calkinsreceived a position at Wellesley College in 1887, and established a prolific laboratory in 1891 producing short-term memory research (Madigan & O’Hara, 1992). In 1906, Calkins was the first woman elected President ofthe American Psychological Association (APA).Margaret Floy Washburn(1871–1939) was the first person, male or female, to receive a Ph.D. from Edward B.Titchener in 1884, the leading structuralist in American experimental psychology at that time (Goodwin, 1999).She was also the first female to receive a Ph.D. in the United States. Interestingly, Washburn never believedTitchener taught her much, as she became a leading comparative psychologist at Vassar College. She producedher most influential work inThe Animal Mindin 1908, and in 1921, she was elected the second womanpresident of APA. She suffered a cerebral hemorrhage in 1937, and died from its complications in 1939(Scarborough & Furumoto, 1987).Christine Ladd-Franklin(1847–1930) was a mathematician who developed an interest in visual perception andmade great contributions to theories of color vision (Furumoto, 1992). She married a math professor fromColumbia University, and she occasionally taught adjunct courses there. However, she was rarely paid. LikeCalkins, she did not receive her Ph.D. although she had completed all of the required work. Johns HopkinsUniversity finally granted her the degree shortly before her death. She accepted the degree in person.At the turn of the 20th century, one popular belief held that there was more variability in intelligence in menthan in women. One implication of this belief was that even the brightest of women would never be as bright oreven “outshine” the brightest of men. African American psychologistLeta Stetter Hollingworth(1886–1939)challenged these beliefs with her research which showed no evidence that the distribution of intelligence testscores differed between men and women (Hollingworth, 1914). She also challenged the popular belief thatwomen’s intellectual abilities were affected by their menstrual cycles, again finding no statistical evidence tosupport such claims (Silverman, 1992). Hollingworth’s contributions are often seen as the seedlings for theformal study of the psychology of women.African American psychologistMamie Phipps Clark(1917–1983) received her bachelor’s and master’s degreesfrom Howard University, and her Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1944. She is well-known for her studiesof racial differences in racial identity and self concept (Clark & Clark, 1950). In the 1940s and 1950s racialsegregation was becoming institutionalized, and Clark became interested in the effects of segregation onAfrican American children. She conducted a series of studies in which African American and white childrenwere shown black and white dolls. The children were first asked to pick the doll they most looked like,establishing a measure of racial identity. Then, children were asked which doll they would most like to playwith. Both whiteandAfrican American children preferred the white doll, suggesting for both races of children apreference and perhaps more value on being white. Clark’s work was considered and noted in the SupremeCourt’s 1954 ruling inBrown v. Board of Educationdesegregation case, which ruled that public schoolsegregation was unconstitutional.Clark, K. B., & Clark, M. P. (1950). Emotional factors in racial identification and preference in Negro children.Journal of Negro Education, 19,341–350.Furumoto, L. (1992). Joining separate spheres: Christine Ladd-Franklin, woman-scientist.American Psychologist, 47,175–182.

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Life13Furumoto, L., & Scarborough, E. (1992). Placing women in the history of psychology: The first American women psychologists. In J. S. Bohan(Ed.)Seldom Seen, Rarely Heard(pp. 337–353). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Goodwin, C. J. (1999).A history of modern psychology.New York: Wiley.Hollingworth, L. S. (1914). Variability as related to sex differences in achievement.American Journal of Sociology, 19,510–530.Madigan, S., & O’Hara, R. (1992). Short-term memory at the turn of the century.American Psychologist, 47,107–174.Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987).Untold lives: The first generation of American women psychologists.New York: Columbia UniversityPress.Silverman, L. K. (1992). Leta Stetter Hollingworth: Champion of the psychology of women and gifted children.Journal of EducationalPsychology, 84,20–27.►Return to Lecture Guide: The Evolution of Modern Psychology◄Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1▲Return to Chapter 1 Table of ContentsLecture/Discussion: Biographical ProfilesWilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)Born in Neckarau, Germany, Wilhelm Wundt was the fourth child of a Lutheran minister. Despite coming from afamily that boasted numerous scholars, scientists, and physicians, Wundt initially was not a good student. After hedropped out of one high school, a teacher suggested that areasonable goal for Wundt would be a career in the postalservice. Wundt’s scholastic abilities improved, however, and in 1855 he graduated at the top of his class in medicalschool. Wundt then went to Berlin to study physiology with Johannes Müller, and he subsequently decided tobecome an experimental physiologist himself. Wundt then returned to the University of Heidelberg, where heworked as an assistant for Herman von Helmholtz. It was at Heidelberg that Wundt taught his first course inpsychology. The year was 1862.In 1879, at the University of Leipzig, where he held a chair in philosophy, Wundt established the Institute forExperimental Psychology, the first laboratory whose formal purpose was the scientific investigation of the humanmind. Wundt is one of the most prolific contributors to the field of psychology ever. It is estimated that between theyears of 1853 and 1920, Wundt wrote 53,735 pages of text. Wundt was not only a voracious writer; he was alsoresponsible for training numerous researchers, some of whom, such as Edward Titchener, brought versions ofWundt’s psychology to America.Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)Sigmund Freud was born in Pribor, Czechoslovakia, in 1856. Although Freud was a gifted student, it took him eightyears to finish his medical degree at the University of Vienna, partly because he was interested in so many topics.Freud first pursued a career as a neurologist, but financial concerns forced him into general medical practice. Incooperation with his friend Joseph Breuer, Freud began to treat hysterical women. This is unusual, because at thetime there was no known cure for hysteria, which is now known as a conversion disorder. Through trial and errorand feedback from his clients, Breuer and Freud developed the technique known as psychoanalysis. Its fundamentalrule is honesty; clients must relay all thoughts and feelings uncensored to the analyst. Clients then follow theirstream of thought wherever it may lead, a process known as free association. In the course of free association,clients often uncover traumatic events in the past, and, upon reliving these events, often experience relief from theirsymptoms.Freud’s firstmajorwork,TheInterpretationof Dreams(1900), detailedthe processofdreaminterpretation, which he felt was the “royal road to the unconscious.” Although it took six years to sell the first 600copies printed, this work was reprinted eight times during Freud’s lifetime.Although the technique of psychoanalysis is perhaps Freud’s most important legacy, he made many othersubstantial contributions to psychology. These include the recognition of the importance of sexuality and unconsciousprocesses, a fully developed system of personality, and an appreciation for the conflict between individual desires andthe constraints of society. His work has influenced so many aspects of our thinking that he is often not given full creditfor the development of his ideas. Freud’s many detractors are quick to point out that his theories are not based onempirical research. While this is true, just because they lack empirical evidence does not mean that they are wrong,only that they are less likely to be right. Because of the breadth of his intellectual contributions, he remains the mostcited psychologist inPsychology and Life, 16th Edition,and most comparable texts.

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Instructor’s Manual forPsychology and Life, 20thEdition14William James (1842–1910)William James, often considered the father of American psychology, was born in New York City, but spent much ofhis childhood traveling between the United States and Europe, where he attended several private schools. James’interest in such varied fields as philosophy, religion, and science were cultivated at home in an enrichedenvironment shared with his brother Henry James, the famous author. William James struggled to find a vocationthat mated his various interests, trying his hand at art (his paintings have appeared on the cover of recent editions ofAmerican Psychologist),chemistry, and, finally, medicine. He received his M.D. from Harvard in 1868.In 1872, James began teaching physiology at Harvard but was preoccupied by his ongoing and deep interest insuch philosophical issues as free will and determinism. Though James considered himself a temporary dabbler in thediscipline of psychology, his two-volume textbook,Principles of Psychology(1890), stood as the field’s definitivetextbook through the first half of this century. It is still considered one of the best-written texts on psychology and asource of many original ideas. James’ contributions to psychology include the notion of a stream of consciousness,the importance of habit and instinct, and a complex theory of the self, theory of emotion, and opening the boundariesof psychology to include topics such as religious beliefs.B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born and raised in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, and received a bachelor’s degree inEnglish from Hamilton College in New York. Skinner enrolled in the experimental psychology program at Harvardand studied under E.G. Boring, earning his masters degree in 1930 and Ph.D. in 1931. In 1936, he began hisacademic career at the University of Minnesota; then, in 1945, he took a position as chairman of the psychologydepartment at Indiana University. In 1948, however, Harvard offered him a position, which he accepted, and heremained there for the rest of his life. Skinner died of leukemia in 1990.While Skinner was at Harvard, he was heavily influenced by the work of John B. Watson. From this influence,Skinner dedicated his life’s work to studying the relationship between reinforcement and observable behavior.Throughout his career, he insisted that psychology be a scientific, empirically-driven discipline. He is considered bymany to be one of the most important figures in twentieth century psychology, and his contribution to both clinicaland experimental psychology is evident in the work of psychologists who followed his lead, and to this day, extendhis work in associative learning research. The principles of reinforcement that he outlined were built on by clinicalpsychologistsandappliedtotheconceptualizationandtreatmentofmentaldisorders.Theapplicationofbehaviorism to clinical psychology was not short-lived, as empirically supported treatments for anxiety disorders(e.g., panic disorder, simple phobia) and child conduct problems are based upon behavioral principles.►Return to Lecture Guide: The Evolution of Modern Psychology◄Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1▲Return to Chapter 1 Table of ContentsLecture/Discussion: Scandal in Psychology—John Watson’s Fall from the ThroneJohn B. Watson was a very famous man in his day—something many students never realize, as he usually gets onlya few short paragraphs in introductory psychology texts. In fact, at the end of his career in psychology he was anesteemed professor at the world-renowned Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. At one time, he wasrecognized as an authority on caring for babies, much as Dr. Spock and Dr. Brazelton would later become householdwords. He was married, a father, and respected in his field.All of that ended when he was fired over his affair with a beautiful and intelligent graduate student, RosalieRaynor. Mary Watson, the wronged wife, insisted that the affair stop, as did Watson’s employers. But neitherWatson nor Raynor wanted the affair to end, and finally Johns Hopkins insisted that he resign. The subsequentdivorce from Mary was front page news at the time.►Return to Lecture Guide: The Evolution of Modern Psychology◄Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1▲Return to Chapter 1 Table of Contents

Lecture Notes For Psychology And Life, 20th Edition - Page 16 preview image

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Chapter 1: Psychology and Life15Lecture/Discussion: There Are Other Psychologies in the WorldWhile introductory psychology books have enough to cover without taking on the whole world, it is important toremember that Western Psychology is not the only game in town. All cultures have implicit or explicit psychologicaltheories, theories of how the mind works, that have been developing for thousands of years. Some, like Mayantheories, were almost completely lost after their cultures were all but wiped out by European invaders. Others, likeTibetanAbhidharma, are writtendown, have continued todevelop andhave foundoverlap with Westernpsychological traditions.Tibetan Psychology:http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec03/tibetan.htmlhttp://www.tibetanclassics.orgJapanese Psychology:http://web-jpn.org/links/education/academic/psychology.htmlhttp://www.todoinstitute.org/►Return to Lecture Guide: The Evolution of Modern Psychology◄Return to Complete List of Lecture Launchers and Discussion Topics for Chapter 1▲Return to Chapter 1 Table of ContentsLecture/Discussion: Some Effects of Culture on the IndividualOne aspect of cross-cultural psychology addresses the similarities and differences among cultures around the globe.However, in our modern world, diversity is no longer restricted to comparing the culture we know with one weconsider to be exotic or strange. A more relevant issue is to address diversity within our own society, and a criticalelement in that regard is to explore the effect of cultural intermingling on individuals. Many researchers have donejust that.For example, Jean Phinney has conducted extensive research on various aspects of ethnic identity, particularlyamong college students (see, e.g., Phinney, 1989, 1990; Phinney & Alipuria, 1990, 1996). She has correctly notedthat “ethnicity is a complex multidimensional construct that, by itself, explains little” (1996, p. 918). Among themany elements Phinney notes to play an important role in understanding ethnicity are cultural norms and values (shedefines ethnicity in the United States as “broad groupings of…[people] on the basis of both race and culture oforigin,” but excluding the “dominant White majority,” pp. 918–919). In a recent paper, Phinney and Madden(submitted for publication) looked at the relationship between intergenerational value discrepancies and lifesatisfaction for three groups of immigrant families: Armenian, Vietnamese, and Mexican. They found that generally,the greater the discrepancy between parents and their adolescent children in terms of language and peer groupaffiliation, the lower the life satisfaction. Thus, when children lacked fluency in their ethnic language and did notassociate extensively with other teens from their ethnic group, they expressed greater dissatisfaction with their lives.Interestingly, this was totally independent of how well their parents spoke English, leading the investigators tobelieve that it is not a matter of being unable to communicate with parents, but rather, that the “lack ofproficiency…is part of a broader pattern of lower involvement in their ethnic culture…that leads to greaterdifferences with their parents” (p. 8).Other researchers have approached issues of life satisfaction from other vantage points. For example, JohnBerry (1997a) describes four different strategies of acculturation when dominant and non-dominant groups cometogether to form culturally plural societies. Berry notes that the groups, and their individual members, must resolvetwo critical issues: first, is it considered to be of value to maintain one’s identity and characteristics, and second, is itconsidered to be of value to maintain relationships with the larger society? Responding “yes” to both questionsresults in integration (or pluralism). Responding “yes” to the first, but “no” to the second, will result in eitherseparation (if that is the choice of the non-dominant group) or segregation (refusal of the dominant group to allowentry by the non-dominant group). When groups, or individuals within groups, deny the value of their own identityand characteristics and opt instead for those of the dominant group, the result is assimilation. The final strategy,rejecting the value of one’s own group as well of those of the larger society, leads to marginalization, a sense ofbeing“onthefringes”ofsociety.Berry(1994)notedthatindividualswhoadoptthisfourthstrategyofmarginalization “lose cultural and psychological contact with both their traditional culture and the larger society.They characteristically strike out against the larger society and experience feelings of alienation, loss of identity, and

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