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PSY101 Portage Learning Module 1-8 Exam Review Study Guide (8 Detailed Reviews)

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Module 1 exam review What Is Lifespan Development? A note before we begin: This course has external links to informational websites and videos. The information on these pages is part of the course and will be incorporated into the exams. Make sure to follow each link and read the material or watch the video as specified in the course material. Lifespan Development Throughout the human life span, numerous changes occur. These changes have physical, social, cognitive, and emotional dimensions. Lifespan development studies these changes from conception to death by investigating major periods of development. These major periods include: • prenatal development • infancy and toddlerhood • early childhood • middle childhood • adolescence • early adulthood • middle adulthood • late adulthood

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ 1. Lifelong In studying these major periods, experts in lifespan development note some distinctive features of human development. First, development is lifelong . Early research and theory in human development primarily focused on children. However, developmental science increasingly emphasizes the major changes that occur throughout adolescence and adulthood, showing that it is important to consider development (or change) at each period. 2. Multidirectional Secondly, development is m ultidirectional . In the paragraph above, development is loosely defined as change. However, change can be good or bad. It can even be both, simultaneously. Thus, at every period, an individual might be improving in some ways and falling behind in others. We even have terms for these different aspects of change. For example, aging , or the process of becoming old, is something that everyone faces if they live long enough. There is a surprising amount of mystery in science regarding what precisely triggers aging. We would typically use this term for adults. While children technically are getting older as well, we wouldn’t use the term “aging” to refer to a child. Aging is somewhat different from growth, which implies physical change (such as growing taller). Maturation , on the other hand, can be physical, emotional, and/or cognitive. Maturation has to do with something becoming more developed and more advanced. For example, our brains don’t grow in size across the lifespan, but they do mature (due to physical changes occurring within the brain) across childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood. In everyday conversation, we may speak of someone becoming more mature; this type of improvement in emotional regulation is a good example of emotional matura tion. Multidirectional development can be seen in adults who are aging and facing some physical declines but are becoming more emotionally mature at the same time.

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ 3. Multidisciplinary Thirdly, the study of development is multidisciplinary . You might be taking this course because of your training in the health sciences, social sciences, or education. Each of these professional fields has a major stake in understanding human development. In addition, each of these fields is influenced by major con tributions from professionals in the remaining fields. 4. Multidimensional Finally, development is multidimensional . As stated earlier, we experience changes in the following dimensions: biological, social, emotional, and cognitive. In addition, moral development is an important area of consideration. In summary, development is multidimensional, multidisciplinary, multidirectional, and lifelong. Theoretical Perspectives in Lifespan Development A. Controversies in Lifespan Development While few students are thrilled at the prospect of studying psychological theory, it is extremely important to understand what directs knowledge in the field. In addition, theoretical perspectives are always significant portions of outcome tests (for example, CLEP, N - CLEX) in development! Watch the video below as you study the material in this module. We will begin with a few controversies in the field. While these controversies are by no means solved, most experts acknowledge the importance of considering both sides. Why is it relevant to discuss these controversies? One reason is because various professionals may lean toward one or the other perspective, and it is important to be aware of these theoretical leanings. In

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ addition, and this is particularly the case with the first controversy, researchers spend a significant amount of time teasing out the relative contributions of the various sides as they seek to understand specific topics in human development.

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ 1. Nature vs. Nurture The nature/nurture issue in human de velopment is one of the most important considerations in the field. At issue is what causes people to be the way they are. Are they born that way? People leaning toward that perspective rely on “nature,” or biology, to explain human behavior. Or, do people change due to their environments, such as parental influence, socioeconomic status, or level of education? These explanations fall under “nurture.” As you can see, both sides are necessary for understanding development. Yet, some professionals, due to their interest and expertise, may lean toward one or the other perspective. 2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity This controversy has to do with the process of change. Is development continuous? If so, then the various stages of development gradually flow into one another. Sometimes it might be hard to even discern where one stage stops and another starts. But if development is discontinuous, then stages are distinct. One definitely ends before the other begins. Historically, as we’ll learn shortly, a discontinuous perspective prevailed. More recently, development is viewed more as a continuum. However, depending on the type of development being discussed, it is helpful to know that both types of change might be possible. B. Major Theorists and Theories Have you heard of the following theorists: Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson? While they are only a few of the classic theorists in lifespan development, they were some of the most influential. Each originated stage theories of human development. We begin with a brief discussion of Freud’s psychodynamic theories.

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ 1. Sigmund Freud and the Psychosexual Stages of Development Freud described five stages of development, each of which involves a conflict and a fixation with an area of the body that is associated with sexual gratification. Terms from this theory are really part of Western culture now. For example, being “anal” and speaking of “phallic symbols” both harken back to Freud. The following quote from R.R. Rice describes and interacts with Freud's stages: Freud posited that our personalities develop based on the interaction and conflict between the id, ego, and superego. The id is the most basic and first part of personality to emerge. It consists of our unconscious impulses that

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ demand imme diate fulfillment. It operates on the pleasure principle: Anything desired by the id must be for immediate pleasure. According to Freud, this is the part of personality that we are born with. The desire for immediate

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ fulfillment is balanced by the ego , which operates according to the reality principle. This function of personality is not inborn but develops as children learn that not all desires can be fulfilled, or even if they can, might be fulfilled after a delay. The ego oper ates in the conscious, then, and addresses how the real world impacts the desires of the id. The superego is the final function of personality, developing by the time a child is school - aged. The superego is the child’s internalization of social norms and standards. As the ego is caught between the id’s impulses and the superego’s moral standards, it must attempt to balance the conflict between the other two functions, as well as the conflict between the internal life and the realities of the external world. In a well - functioning adult, this balance works. However, that balance between competing impulses is not always easy to achieve. Personality development progresses through stages that are named after the bodily area from which a person of a particular age centers her pleasure and enjoyment. Either deriving too much pleasure or getting too little pleasure in a particular stage can cause a person to become stuck (or fixated , to use Freud’s language) as we seek to recreate the pleasure, or to address the fact that we were deprived during that stage’s pleasures. We will address what Freud suggested are the primary developmental tasks of these stages, as well as where he thought problems could develop. Oral Stage (Birth - 18 months): In the oral stage, children derive their primary pleasure through their mouths. Their major developmental task from birth to approximately 18 months is to grow and begin to understand the world. They do that by investigating whether or not new things are food — everything goes into a baby’s mouth, and they are easily soothed by sucking, so pacifiers provide a pleasurable experience for young children. Of course, the central activity that provides pleasure to children in this st age is nursing. Children in this stage are primarily functioning in response to their id impulses. If they derive too much pleasure in this stage (for example, they are allowed to breastfeed for a long time and are weaned late) or too little pleasure (they are weaned early), they will become fixated and not progress fully to healthy adult development. Instead, their personality will be one of dependency on others and general neediness as they seek to recreate the initial comfort they found when all of their needs were taken care of by their mother. Behavioral indicators that an adult has a fixated oral personality might also be smoking or chewing gum or constantly biting one’s fingernails. These are reversions to

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ seeking oral pleasure. Anal Stage (18 months - 3 years): During the anal stage, children’s pleasure moves from an oral focus about feeding to a focus on the anus, as the primary

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ developmental task shifts to toilet training. Children derive pleasure from learning to control their bodies, and by extension, to control the environment around them. They can choose to eliminate their bowels or not, and so gain control of themselves and their environment. Many parents will remember times when their potty - training child made pronouncements about needing the bathroom on a car trip and the frantic search for a place to stop that then ensues: The child is definitely in control of the environment in that case. Difficulties with toilet training, whether training too late or traumatically too early can lead to anal fixations, which are also about control. For example, an anal retentive personality might have a high need for orderliness and cleanliness in his environment, whereas an anal expulsive personality might exert contro l over her surroundings by leaving her belongings scattered and messy. In both cases these are issues of control of the environment. Phallic Stage (3 years - 5 years): During this stage of development, the zone from which pleasure is derived is the genitalia, specifically the penis. Boys and girls are both beginning to explore their bodies and are learning about differences in anatomy. The focus of this stage, then, is on boys’ anatomy. According to Freud, once girls realize that boys have a penis and they don’t, girls experience penis envy because they are missing this significant feature. Once boys realize they have a penis and girls don’t, they come to believe that girls must have lost their penis, and so become overly focused on keeping theirs. In order to work through this, boys go through what Freud called Oedipal conflict , a series of steps where boys turn their affections toward their mothers and desire them sexually. Boys are fearful that their fathers will be angered by their competition for her affection, and so boys undergo castration anxiety where they fear that they will be emasculated by their fathers. In order to deal with this anxiety, boys recognize that they cannot compete against their fathers, and thus begin to identify with the ir fathers in order to adopt an appropriate male role. It is the internalization of the external standards of masculinity that helps boys to develop a superego. Girls do not navigate this pathway during the phallic stage, instead focusing on their lack of a penis and blaming their mothers who are also missing a penis for their lack, beginning the process of the Electra conflict . According to psychodynamic theory, girls move from an attachment to their mother to experiencing deep affection for and attachment to their fathers, leading to some of the same competition and fear that boys in this stage experience.

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Girls ultimately resolve this conflict by looking to their mothers as a model for how to be a woman, ultimately incorporating those external standards into their sense of what it means to be a girl. As an aside, since girls do not go through the Oedipal conflict, in Freud’s estimation girls had a less firmly

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ developed superego and consequently a weaker moral compass. For both boys and girls, successful navigation of the phallic stage will lead to the development of the superego that helps them repress their sexual desires. Fixation in the phallic stage is likely to result in different outcomes for boys and girls. For boys, it will stem from unsuccessful resolution of the Oedipal conflict so that they are overly focused on masculinity. For girls who unsuccessfully resolve their penis envy, their continued desire for a penis will cause them to be emasculat ing; they will attempt to cut men down emotionally and socially. Latency Stage (5 years - puberty): According to Freud, once the phallic stage is navigated, children enter a period of latency, where no new psychological challenges or conflicts emerge. Rather, children focus on developing same - sex friendships throughout elementary school and developing interests throughout those school years. Genital Stage (puberty - adulthood): Assuming that a person has successfully navigated the first three stages, once puberty is reached the person enters the genital stage. Although the area of focus for pleasure is the genitals, it is quite different from the phallic stage. The difference here is that mutual genital pleasure is the focus, rather than just male sexu al anatomy. The genital stage, then, is about healthy relationships with others and with productive work. The genital stage of personality focuses on our healthy adult growth. Although there are definitely issues of sexuality raised by Freud’s theory below, you can see that an individual’s transition through these phases is also about more than just sexuality. Freud’s psychodynamic approach demonstrates a broader theory about growth, starting with complete dependency in infancy and moving into mature functioning and productivity as we age (Rice, 2020). Many theorists and researchers have critiqued these stages. For instance, many have noted that Freud lumps adolescents and adults together in the final stage and is uninterested in exploring additional development. However, a lifespan perspective to development notes the very important changes that occur after adolescence. Freud was a product of his time, which was a period in which people assumed that few developmental changes occurred after adolescence . This has now been shown to be incorrect; a number of important

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ changes occur in adulthood, and some of these changes will be covered in this course. Other researchers take issue with Freud’s research methods, stating that Freud’s particular clinical sample and biased analysis call the stages into question. Since he only studied individuals seeking

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ psychoanalysis for a variety of mental conditions, many question whether his stages are applicable to normal, healthy development, or whether they primarily reflect what might occur in a patient sample. However, they are still relevant to discuss for their historical importance and their current influence today. 2. Erik Erikson and the Psychosocial Stages of Development Erik Erikson described eight stages of human development, ranging from infancy to late adulthood. Erikson integrated social experiences extensively

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    Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1 - 8 exam review STUDY GUIDE Latest RATED A+ into his stage theory. Thus, they are most aptly described as psychosocial stages. Read the detailed description of the stages. (Links to an external site.) It’s recommended that you watch the videos and take notes on the

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