PSY101 Portage Learning Module 1-8 Exam Review Study Guide (8 Detailed Reviews)

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+Module1examreviewWhatIsLifespanDevelopment?Anotebeforewebegin:This course has external links to informational websites and videos. Theinformationonthesepagesispartofthecourseandwillbeincorporatedintothe exams. Make sure tofollow each link and read the material or watch thevideoasspecifiedin thecoursematerial.LifespanDevelopmentThroughout the human life span, numerous changes occur. These changeshave physical, social, cognitive, and emotional dimensions. Lifespandevelopmentstudiesthesechangesfromconceptiontodeathbyinvestigatingmajorperiodsofdevelopment.Thesemajorperiodsinclude:•prenataldevelopment•infancyandtoddlerhood•earlychildhood•middlechildhood•adolescence•earlyadulthood•middleadulthood•lateadulthood

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+1.LifelongInstudyingthesemajorperiods,expertsinlifespandevelopmentnotesomedistinctivefeaturesofhumandevelopment.First,developmentislifelong.Early research and theory in human development primarily focused onchildren.However,developmentalscienceincreasinglyemphasizesthemajorchanges that occur throughout adolescence and adulthood, showing that it isimportanttoconsiderdevelopment(orchange)at eachperiod.2.MultidirectionalSecondly, development ismultidirectional. In the paragraph above,development is loosely defined as change. However, change can be good orbad.Itcanevenbeboth,simultaneously.Thus,ateveryperiod,anindividualmightbeimprovinginsomewaysandfallingbehindinothers.Weevenhavetermsforthese different aspects ofchange.For example,aging, or the process of becoming old, is something thateveryone faces if they live long enough. There is a surprising amount ofmystery in science regarding what precisely triggersaging. We would typicallyusethistermforadults.Whilechildrentechnicallyaregettingolderaswell,wewouldn’tusetheterm“aging” torefer toachild.Agingissomewhatdifferentfromgrowth,whichimpliesphysicalchange(suchasgrowingtaller).Maturation, on the other hand, can be physical, emotional, and/or cognitive.Maturation has to do with something becoming more developed and moreadvanced.Forexample,ourbrainsdon’tgrowinsizeacrossthelifespan,butthey do mature (due tophysical changes occurring within the brain) acrosschildhood, adolescence, and early adulthood. In everyday conversation, wemay speak of someone becoming more mature; this type of improvement inemotionalregulationisagoodexampleof emotionalmaturation.Multidirectionaldevelopmentcanbeseeninadultswhoareagingandfacingsome physical declines but are becoming more emotionally mature at thesametime.

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+3.MultidisciplinaryThirdly, the study of development ismultidisciplinary. Youmight be takingthiscoursebecauseofyourtraininginthehealthsciences,socialsciences,oreducation. Each of these professional fields has a major stake inunderstanding human development. In addition, each of these fields isinfluencedbymajorcontributionsfromprofessionalsintheremainingfields.4.MultidimensionalFinally, developmentismultidimensional. As stated earlier, we experiencechanges in the following dimensions: biological, social, emotional, andcognitive. In addition, moraldevelopment is an important area ofconsideration.Insummary,developmentismultidimensional,multidisciplinary,multidirectional, andlifelong.TheoreticalPerspectivesinLifespanDevelopmentA.ControversiesinLifespanDevelopmentWhile few studentsare thrilled at the prospect of studying psychologicaltheory,itisextremelyimportanttounderstandwhatdirectsknowledgeinthefield. In addition, theoretical perspectives are always significant portions ofoutcometests(forexample,CLEP,N-CLEX)indevelopment!Watchthevideobelowasyoustudythematerialinthismodule.We will begin with a few controversies in the field. While these controversiesare by no means solved, most experts acknowledge the importance ofconsidering both sides. Why isit relevant to discuss these controversies? Onereason is because various professionals may lean toward one or the otherperspective, and it is important to be aware of these theoretical leanings. In

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+addition,andthisisparticularlythecasewiththefirstcontroversy,researchersspend a significant amount of time teasing out the relative contributions of thevarious sides as they seek to understand specific topics in humandevelopment.

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+1.Naturevs.NurtureThe nature/nurture issue in human development is one of the most importantconsiderations in the field. At issue is what causes people to be the way theyare. Are they born that way? People leaning toward that perspective rely on“nature,” or biology, to explain human behavior. Or, do peoplechange due totheirenvironments,suchasparentalinfluence,socioeconomicstatus,orlevelofeducation?Theseexplanationsfallunder“nurture.”As you can see, both sides are necessary for understanding development.Yet,someprofessionals,duetotheirinterestandexpertise,mayleantowardoneor the otherperspective.2.Continuityvs.DiscontinuityThis controversy has to do with the process of change. Is developmentcontinuous? If so, then the various stages of development gradually flow intooneanother. Sometimes it might be hard to even discern where one stagestopsandanotherstarts.Butifdevelopmentisdiscontinuous,thenstagesaredistinct.Onedefinitelyendsbeforetheotherbegins.Historically,aswe’lllearnshortly,adiscontinuousperspectiveprevailed.Morerecently, development is viewed more as a continuum. However, dependingon the type of development being discussed, it is helpful to know that bothtypesofchangemightbepossible.B.MajorTheoristsandTheoriesHaveyouheardofthefollowingtheorists:SigmundFreud,JeanPiaget,ErikErikson? While they are only a few of the classic theorists in lifespandevelopment, they were some of the most influential. Each originated stagetheoriesofhumandevelopment.WebeginwithabriefdiscussionofFreud’spsychodynamictheories.

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+1.SigmundFreudandthePsychosexualStagesofDevelopmentFreud described five stages of development, each of which involves a conflictand a fixation with an area of the body that isassociated with sexualgratification.TermsfromthistheoryarereallypartofWesternculturenow.Forexample, being “anal” and speaking of “phallic symbols” both harken back toFreud. The following quote from R.R. Rice describes and interacts withFreud's stages:Freud posited that our personalities develop based on the interaction andconflict between the id, ego, and superego. Theidis the most basic and firstpart of personality to emerge. It consists of our unconscious impulses that

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+demandimmediatefulfillment.Itoperatesonthepleasureprinciple:Anythingdesired by the id must be for immediate pleasure. According to Freud, this isthepartofpersonalitythatwearebornwith.Thedesireforimmediate

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+fulfillmentis balanced by theego, which operates according to the realityprinciple. This function of personality is not inborn but develops as childrenlearn that not all desires can be fulfilled, or even if they can, might be fulfilledafteradelay.Theegooperatesintheconscious,then,andaddresseshowthereal world impacts the desires of the id. Thesuperegois the final function ofpersonality,developingbythetimeachildisschool-aged.Thesuperegoisthechild’s internalization of social norms andstandards. As the ego is caughtbetweentheid’simpulsesandthesuperego’smoralstandards,itmustattempt to balance the conflict between the other two functions, as well as theconflict between the internal life and the realities of the externalworld. In awell-functioning adult, this balance works. However, that balance betweencompetingimpulses is notalwayseasy toachieve.Personality development progresses through stages that are named after thebodilyarea from which a person of a particular age centers her pleasure andenjoyment. Either deriving too much pleasure or getting too little pleasure in aparticular stage can cause a person to become stuck (orfixated, to useFreud’s language) as we seek torecreate the pleasure, or to address the factthat we were deprived during that stage’s pleasures. We will address whatFreudsuggestedaretheprimarydevelopmentaltasksofthesestages,aswellaswhere hethoughtproblems could develop.Oral Stage (Birth-18 months):In the oral stage, children derive their primarypleasure through their mouths. Their major developmental task from birth toapproximately 18 months is to grow and begin to understand the world. Theydo that by investigatingwhether or not new things are food—everything goesinto a baby’s mouth, and they are easily soothed by sucking, so pacifiersprovide a pleasurable experience for young children. Of course, the centralactivity that provides pleasure to children in this stage is nursing. Children inthis stage are primarily functioning in response to their id impulses. If theyderive too much pleasure in this stage (for example, they are allowed tobreastfeed for a long time and are weaned late) or too little pleasure (theyareweaned early), they will become fixated and not progress fully to healthy adultdevelopment. Instead, their personality will be one of dependency on othersand general neediness as they seek to recreate the initial comfort they foundwhen all of theirneeds were taken care of by their mother. Behavioralindicatorsthatanadulthasafixatedoralpersonalitymightalsobesmokingorchewing gum or constantly biting one’s fingernails. These are reversions to

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+seekingoral pleasure.Anal Stage (18 months-3 years):During the anal stage, children’s pleasuremovesfromanoralfocusaboutfeedingtoafocusontheanus,astheprimary

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+developmental task shifts to toilet training. Children derive pleasure fromlearning tocontrol their bodies, and by extension, to control the environmentaround them. They can choose to eliminate their bowels or not, and so gaincontrol of themselves and their environment. Many parents will remembertimes when their potty-training child madepronouncements about needing thebathroom on a car trip and the frantic search for a place to stop that thenensues:Thechildisdefinitelyincontroloftheenvironmentinthatcase.Difficulties with toilet training, whether training too late ortraumatically tooearlycanleadtoanalfixations,whicharealsoaboutcontrol.Forexample,ananal retentive personality might have a high need for orderliness andcleanliness in his environment, whereas an anal expulsive personality mightexert control over her surroundings by leaving her belongings scattered andmessy.Inbothcasestheseareissuesofcontroloftheenvironment.Phallic Stage (3 years-5 years):During this stage of development, the zonefromwhichpleasureisderivedisthegenitalia,specificallythepenis.Boysandgirls are both beginning to explore their bodies and are learning aboutdifferencesinanatomy.Thefocusofthisstage,then,isonboys’anatomy.According to Freud, once girls realize that boys have a penisand they don’t,girls experiencepenis envybecause they are missing this significant feature.Onceboysrealizetheyhaveapenisandgirlsdon’t,theycometobelievethatgirls must have lost their penis, and so become overly focused on keepingtheirs.Inordertowork throughthis,boys gothroughwhatFreudcalledOedipal conflict, a series of steps where boys turn their affectionstoward their mothers and desire them sexually. Boys are fearful that theirfathers will be angered by their competitionfor her affection, and so boysundergocastration anxietywhere they fear that they will be emasculated bytheirfathers.Inordertodealwiththisanxiety,boysrecognizethattheycannotcompete against their fathers, and thus begin to identify with their fathers inorder to adopt an appropriate male role. It is the internalization of the externalstandardsofmasculinity thathelpsboystodevelopasuperego.Girls do not navigate this pathway during the phallic stage, instead focusingon their lack ofa penis and blaming their mothers who are also missing apenisfortheirlack,beginningtheprocessoftheElectraconflict.Accordingtopsychodynamic theory, girls move from an attachment to their mother toexperiencing deep affection for and attachmentto their fathers, leading tosomeofthesamecompetitionandfearthatboysinthisstageexperience.

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+Girlsultimatelyresolvethisconflictbylookingtotheirmothersasamodelforhow to be a woman, ultimately incorporating those external standardsintotheir sense of what it means to be a girl. As an aside, since girls do not gothroughtheOedipalconflict,inFreud’sestimationgirlshadalessfirmly

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+developedsuperegoandconsequentlyaweakermoralcompass.Forbothboys and girls,successful navigation of the phallic stage will lead to thedevelopmentofthesuperegothathelpsthemrepresstheirsexualdesires.Fixationinthe phallicstageislikelytoresultindifferentoutcomesforboysand girls. For boys, it will stem from unsuccessful resolution of the Oedipalconflict so that they are overly focused on masculinity. For girls whounsuccessfully resolve their penis envy, their continued desire for a penis willcausethemtobeemasculating;theywillattempttocutmendownemotionallyandsocially.LatencyStage(5years-puberty):AccordingtoFreud,oncethephallicstageis navigated, children enter a period of latency, where no new psychologicalchallenges or conflicts emerge.Rather, children focus on developing same-sex friendships throughout elementary school and developing intereststhroughoutthose school years.Genital Stage (puberty-adulthood):Assuming that a person has successfullynavigatedthefirstthreestages,oncepubertyisreachedthepersonentersthegenital stage. Although the area of focus for pleasure is the genitals, it is quitedifferent from the phallic stage. The difference here is that mutual genitalpleasureisthefocus,ratherthanjustmalesexualanatomy.Thegenitalstage,then, is about healthy relationships with others and with productive work. Thegenitalstageofpersonality focusesonourhealthy adult growth.Although there are definitely issues of sexuality raised by Freud’s theorybelow,youcanseethatanindividual’stransitionthroughthesephasesisalsoabout more than just sexuality. Freud’s psychodynamic approachdemonstrates a broader theory about growth, starting with completedependencyininfancyandmovingintomaturefunctioningandproductivityasweage (Rice,2020).Many theorists and researchers have critiqued these stages. For instance,manyhavenotedthatFreudlumpsadolescentsandadultstogetherinthefinalstageandisuninterestedinexploringadditionaldevelopment.However,a lifespan perspective to development notes the very important changes thatoccur after adolescence. Freud was a product of his time, which was a periodin which people assumed that few developmental changes occurred afteradolescence.Thishasnowbeenshowntobeincorrect;anumberofimportant

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+changesoccurin adulthood,andsomeofthesechangeswillbecoveredinthis course. Other researchers take issue with Freud’s research methods,stating that Freud’s particular clinicalsample and biased analysis call thestagesintoquestion.Sinceheonlystudiedindividualsseeking

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+psychoanalysisforavarietyofmentalconditions,manyquestionwhetherhisstages are applicable to normal, healthy development, or whether theyprimarily reflect whatmightoccurinapatientsample.However,theyarestillrelevanttodiscussfortheirhistoricalimportanceandtheircurrent influence today.2.ErikEriksonandthePsychosocialStagesofDevelopmentErik Erikson describedeight stages of human development, ranging frominfancytolateadulthood.Eriksonintegratedsocialexperiencesextensively

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Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE Latest RATED A+Portage Learning / PSY 101 / Module 1-8 exam review STUDYGUIDE LatestRATED A+into his stage theory. Thus, they are most aptly described as psychosocialstages.Read the detailed description of the stages. (Links to an externalsite.)It’srecommendedthatyouwatchthevideosandtakenotesonthe

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