Psychology - Developmental Psychology Age 0–13 - Quick Guides | Psychology

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Study GuidePsychology – Developmental Psychology: Age 0–131.Development in Infancy and ChildhoodHuman development begins even before birth and continues rapidly through infancy and childhood.During this time, the brain, body, thinking, emotions, and social relationships all develop in importantand connected ways.1.1Brain Development and the Importance of EnvironmentBefore birth (in utero), the brain grows very quickly. By the time a baby is born, it already hasalmostall the nerve cellsit will ever have. Brain development is especially rapid during thethird trimesterof pregnancy.However, after birth, the brain still has a lot of work to do. What develops next are theconnectionsbetween neurons, which are essential for learning to walk, talk, think, and remember.PsychologistsMark RosenzweigandDavid Krechdemonstrated the importance of environmentthrough research with rats:•Rats raised alone (animpoverished environment) developed athinner cerebral cortex.•They also hadfewer glial cells, which support and nourish neurons.•Rats raised in astimulating environmentwith other rats and toys showed healthier braindevelopment.Other studies found thattouch and massagebenefit both premature human infants and infant rats.Together, these findings strongly support the importance of anenriched environmentduring earlydevelopment.1.2Innate Reflexes in InfantsInfants are born with manyinnate (unlearned) reflexes. These are automatic responses to specificstimuli and help doctors assess healthy development.

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Study GuideCommon infant reflexes include:•Moro reflex: Stretching out the arms and legs in response to a loud noise or suddenmovement, followed by drawing them inward.•Babinski reflex: The big toe moves upward and the other toes fan out when the sole of thefoot is touched.•Sucking reflex: Sucking when something touches the lips.•Rooting reflex: Turning the head toward a touch on the cheek or mouth area.•Grasping reflex: Strongly gripping an object placed in the palm.•Plantar reflex: Curling the toes when the ball of the foot is touched.As infants grow, these reflexes are gradually replaced bylearned and voluntary behaviors.1.3Motor DevelopmentAlthough infants develop at differentrates, thesequence of motor development is the sameformost children.On average:•Rolling over:about 2½ months•Sitting without support:around 6 months•Walking independently:about 12 monthsPhysical development follows acephalocaudal pattern, meaning development proceeds from thehead downward—the head and upper body develop before the legs and feet.1.4Sensory and Perceptual DevelopmentNewborns can respond to many environmental stimuli. All five senses work at birth, but they are notequally developed:•Touchis the most developed sense at birth.•Visionis the least developed.By around3 months, most infants can recognize aphotograph of their mother.

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Study Guide1.5Depth Perception and the Visual CliffDepth perception has been studied using thevisual cliff, a glass-covered platform that appears todrop off sharply.PsychologistsEleanor GibsonandRichard Walkfound that by about6 months of age, babieshesitate to crawl over the “cliff,” showing thatdepth perceptionis present.1.6Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive developmentrefers to the development of thinking, reasoning, mental representation, andthe use of symbols.

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Study GuidePiaget’s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentJean Piagetwas a pioneer in studying how children think. He believed children actively organizeinformation and adapt to their environment using two processes:•Assimilation: Fitting new information into existing ideasoExample: Calling all adult men “daddy”•Accommodation: Creating new ideas when old ones don’t workoExample: Learning that not all toys belong to themPiaget proposedfour stages of cognitive development:1.Sensorimotor stage (birth–2 years)oLearning through senses and actionsoDevelopment ofobject permanence(knowing objects still exist when out of sight)2.Preoperational stage (2–7 years)oIncreased use of language and symbolsoThinking is oftenegocentric(self-centered)3.Concrete operational stage (7–11 years)oLogical thinking about concrete objectsoAbility to classify and organize information4.Formal operational stage (11 years and older)oAbstract thinkingoAbility to reason, test hypotheses, and solve complex problemsAlthough Piaget’s theory has been criticized, it remainshighly influentialin developmentalpsychology.

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Study Guide1.7Language DevelopmentLanguage developmentis one of the most important achievements of childhood. Through language,children communicate needs, share ideas, and build social relationships. (This topic is often studied ingreater detail on its own.)1.8Moral DevelopmentKohlberg’s TheoryLawrence Kohlbergproposed that moral reasoning develops throughthree levels, each with twostages:Preconventional Level•Stage 1: Punishment orientation–Avoiding punishment•Stage 2: Pleasure-seeking orientation–Acting to satisfy personal needsConventional Level•Stage 3: Good girl/good boy orientation–Seeking approval•Stage 4: Authority orientation–Respecting rules and authorityPostconventional Level•Stage 5: Social contract orientation–Following laws for society’s good•Stage 6: Ethical principles orientation–Guided by personal moral principlesKohlberg found:•Most children reach stages 1 and 2•Most adults reach stages 3 and 4•Only about20% of peoplereach stage 6Gilligan’s PerspectiveCarol Gilligansuggested that males and females may emphasize morality differently:•Girls often focus oncare and relationships•Boys often focus onjustice and rulesShe proposed that these differences are partly shaped by early relationships, especially with mothers.

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