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Psychology - Psychology Cognition and Language

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    Study Guide Psychology – Psychology: Cognition and Language 1. Concepts Concepts are mental categories that help us organize information about objects, events, and ideas. They allow us to make sense of the world by grouping similar things together. Concepts are often organized in a hierarchy , moving from very general categories to more specific ones. For example: • Organism • Animal • Vertebrate • Quadruped • Dog • Collie This kind of organization helps people: • Understand new information more easily • Make decisions and plans • Organize daily activities, such as dividing time between studying, attending classes, and relaxing 1.1 Prototypes and Concept Use When people think about a concept, they often rely on a prototype . A prototype is a mental image or best example of a category. Prototypes are not the same for everyone. They are shaped by personal experience . For example, your prototype of a “dog” might be:

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    Study Guide • Medium - sized • Long - haired • Black and white • Friendly and tail - wagging When you see a new dog, you tend to compare it to your prototype and decide how similar or different it is. This makes categorizing faster and easier, even though not all dogs fit the prototype perfectly. 1.2 Theories of Concept Formation Psychologists have proposed different theories to explain how concepts are formed . Mediation Theory Mediation theory focuses on how people form connections between things that were not previously connected . It explains concept formation as a process of linking ideas through mental steps, or “mediators,” that help organize information. Hypothesis - Testing Theory According to hypothesis - testing theory , concept formation is an active process . People: • Form hypotheses (guesses) about what characteristics define a concept • Test those hypotheses by observing examples • Keep the hypotheses that work and discard those that do not • Revise their understanding as new information appears This approach shows that learning concepts involves thinking, testing, and adjusting — not just memorizing.

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    Study Guide Key Takeaway Concepts help us organize and understand the world. We often use prototypes to represent categories, and we form concepts by actively testing ideas and making mental connections. These processes allow us to think efficiently, learn new information, and pla n our actions. 2. Language Language is a system of communication that uses sounds, gestures, or written symbols . These symbols have meaning for the people who use them and follow agreed - upon rules. Language allows us to share ideas, express emotions, and understand one another. 2.1 Sounds in Language: Phonemes In spoken language, the smallest units of sound are called phonemes . On their own, phonemes usually do not have meaning , but they become meaningful when combined. For example: • The sounds /k/ and /r/ by themselves have no meaning • When combined, they form the word car , which does have meaning in English 2.2 Meaning in Language: Semantics and Morphemes Semantics is the study of meaning in language. The smallest unit of meaning is called a morpheme . A morpheme is often a whole word, but it can also be a meaningful part of a word. Example: • The word overcoat has two morphemes: over + coat • Changing the order (for example, coatover ) changes or destroys the meaning Rules of language determine how morphemes are combined to make meaningful words.

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