Psychology - Psychology Emotions - Quick Guides

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Study GuidePsychology–Psychology: Emotions1.Cognitive Factors in EmotionOur emotions are not shaped by our bodies alone.How we think about what is happening alsoplays a big role.Many psychologists, including Schachter and Singer, explain emotions usingattribution theories of emotion.1.1What Are Attribution Theories?Attribution theories focus on how peopleuse clues from their surroundingsto understand whatthey are feeling.In simple terms, we often ask ourselves questions like:•Why is my heart beating fast?•What caused this feeling?Based on the answers we give, we label our emotion—such as excitement, fear, or attraction.1.2Stuart Valins’ Experiment: A Clear ExamplePsychologistStuart Valinsdemonstrated this idea with an interesting study.•Male participants were shown pictures ofseminude women.•While viewing the pictures, the men heardamplified heartbeatsthrough headphones.•They were told the heartbeats were their own, butthey were actually fake.•The speed of the heartbeats changed from picture to picture.1.3What Happened?The participants believed their heart rate was reacting to the pictures. As a result:•Theyattributed faster heartbeats to stronger attraction.•They chose the pictures they thought caused the fastest heartbeat asthe most attractive.

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Study GuideIn reality, their bodies were not responding differently at all. Theirbeliefs about their heart rateshaped how attractive they found the images.Why This MattersThis study shows that emotions are influenced by how weinterpret physical signals, not just by thesignals themselves. Our thoughts help turn bodily reactions into specific emotions.Interestingly, this approach has also been used intherapy, especially for people experiencingdelusions. By changing how individuals interpret physical or environmental cues, therapists cansometimes help reduce emotional distress.Key Takeaway•Emotions are not automatic reactions.•We activelyinterpret cluesfrom our body and environment.•These interpretations strongly influencewhat we feel and why we feel it.2.Other Theories of EmotionPsychologists have proposed several theories to explainhow emotions are organized,experienced, and expressed. Each theory looks at emotions from a slightly different angle.2.1The Circumplex Theory of EmotionThecircumplex theory of emotion, proposed byJ. A. RussellandH. Schlosberg, suggests thatemotions can be understood usingtwo main dimensions:1.Pleasantness↔Misery(how good or bad the emotion feels)2.Arousal↔Sleepiness(how energized or calm the emotion is)Think of these dimensions astwo crossing axes. Different emotions can be placed around them in acircular pattern, showing how emotions are related to one another.•Excitementfalls in the area ofhigh arousal and pleasure.•Distressfalls in the area ofhigh arousal and misery.

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Study GuideThis model helps explain why some emotions feel similar and why others feel like complete opposites.Figure 1Axes of Emotions2.2Tomkins’s Theory of EmotionSilvan Tomkinsbelieved that humans are born with alimited number of basic emotionsthat aregenetically programmedinto the brain.According to Tomkins:•Emotions are triggered bychanges in stimulation.•These changes affectneural firing patterns, which then create emotional experiences.•Emotions increasemotivationand help push us toact.He also proposed that each emotion comes with:•Aspecific facial expression•Certainvocal soundsThese built-in responses help uscommunicate emotionsto others without needing words.

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Study Guide2.3Izard’s Theory of EmotionCarroll Izardidentifiedten primary emotions:•Fear•Anger•Shame•Contempt•Disgust•Guilt•Distress•Interest•Surprise•JoyIzard argued that:•These emotionscannot be broken downinto simpler emotions.•They cancombineto form more complex emotional experiences.•Each emotion has itsown neural basis.•Each has adistinct pattern of expression, especially facial expressions.•Every emotion is experienced in aunique way.2.4Plutchik’s Theory of EmotionRobert Plutchikproposed that there areeight primary emotions, each linked to survival:•Anger•Fear•Sadness•Disgust•Surprise

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Study Guide•Expectancy•Acceptance•JoyAccording to Plutchik:•These emotions supportadaptive behaviorsneeded for survival.•Other emotions arevariations or combinationsof these eight.•Emotions can differ inintensity,strength, andduration.This theory helps explain why emotions can feel mild at times and overwhelming at others.2.5The Opponent-Process Theory of EmotionTheopponent-process theory, developed byRichard SolomonandJohn Corbit, focuses onemotional balancein the body.The key ideas are:•Emotions disrupt the body’sstate of balance (homeostasis).•Emotions occur inopposing pairs, such as:oPleasure↔PainoFear↔ReliefoDepression↔ElationWhen one emotion is experienced, itsopposite emotionis also triggered.•Over time, the opponent emotionreduces the intensityof the first emotion.•Eventually, it cancancel it out.ExampleA rock climber may feelintense fearduring early climbs. Over time, however, thethrill and reliefofreaching the top safely begin to outweigh the fear.Application to AddictionSome psychologists use this theory to explaindrug addiction:

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Study Guide•The pleasure from a drug decreases over time due to the opponent process.•More of the drug is needed to feel the same pleasure.•Without the drug, the person experienceswithdrawal pain.Key TakeawayEach theory offers a unique way to understand emotions:•Some focus ondimensionsof feeling.•Others emphasizebiological programming,primary emotions, oremotional balance.•Together, they show that emotions arecomplex,adaptive, and deeply connected to both thebrain and behavior.3.Nonverbal Communication of EmotionEmotions are not expressed only through words.Much of what we communicate about how wefeel happens without speaking at all.This is callednonverbal communication of emotion, and itplays an important role in both human and animal behavior.3.1What Ethologists StudyEthologistsare scientists who study behavior, especially in animals. They are interested in howemotions are communicated throughintention movements—small actions that signal what anindividual is likely to do next.For example:•When adog bares its teeth, it signals aggression or a possible attack.•When adog wags its tail, it often signals friendliness or excitement.These signals communicate future actions clearly. Both humans and other animals can understandthem.

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