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Psychology - Psychology Emotions

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    Study Guide Psychology – Psychology: Emotions 1. Cognitive Factors in Emotion Our emotions are not shaped by our bodies alone. How we think about what is happening also plays a big role. Many psychologists, including Schachter and Singer, explain emotions using attribution theories of emotion . 1.1 What Are Attribution Theories? Attribution theories focus on how people use clues from their surroundings to understand what they are feeling. In simple terms, we often ask ourselves questions like: • Why is my heart beating fast? • What caused this feeling? Based on the answers we give, we label our emotion — such as excitement, fear, or attraction. 1.2 Stuart Valins’ Experiment: A Clear Example Psychologist Stuart Valins demonstrated this idea with an interesting study. • Male participants were shown pictures of seminude women . • While viewing the pictures, the men heard amplified heartbeats through headphones. • They were told the heartbeats were their own, but they were actually fake . • The speed of the heartbeats changed from picture to picture. 1.3 What Happened? The participants believed their heart rate was reacting to the pictures. As a result: • They attributed faster heartbeats to stronger attraction . • They chose the pictures they thought caused the fastest heartbeat as the most attractive .

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    Study Guide In reality, their bodies were not responding differently at all. Their beliefs about their heart rate shaped how attractive they found the images. Why This Matters This study shows that emotions are influenced by how we interpret physical signals , not just by the signals themselves. Our thoughts help turn bodily reactions into specific emotions. Interestingly, this approach has also been used in therapy , especially for people experiencing delusions . By changing how individuals interpret physical or environmental cues, therapists can sometimes help reduce emotional distress. Key Takeaway • Emotions are not automatic reactions. • We actively interpret clues from our body and environment. • These interpretations strongly influence what we feel and why we feel it . 2. Other Theories of Emotion Psychologists have proposed several theories to explain how emotions are organized, experienced, and expressed . Each theory looks at emotions from a slightly different angle. 2.1 The Circumplex Theory of Emotion The circumplex theory of emotion , proposed by J. A. Russell and H. Schlosberg , suggests that emotions can be understood using two main dimensions : 1. Pleasantness ↔ Misery (how good or bad the emotion feels) 2. Arousal ↔ Sleepiness (how energized or calm the emotion is) Think of these dimensions as two crossing axes . Different emotions can be placed around them in a circular pattern , showing how emotions are related to one another. • Excitement falls in the area of high arousal and pleasure . • Distress falls in the area of high arousal and misery .

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    Study Guide This model helps explain why some emotions feel similar and why others feel like complete opposites. Figure 1 Axes of Emotions 2.2 Tomkins’s Theory of Emotion Silvan Tomkins believed that humans are born with a limited number of basic emotions that are genetically programmed into the brain. According to Tomkins: • Emotions are triggered by changes in stimulation . • These changes affect neural firing patterns , which then create emotional experiences. • Emotions increase motivation and help push us to act . He also proposed that each emotion comes with: • A specific facial expression • Certain vocal sounds These built - in responses help us communicate emotions to others without needing words.

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    Study Guide 2.3 Izard’s Theory of Emotion Carroll Izard identified ten primary emotions : • Fear • Anger • Shame • Contempt • Disgust • Guilt • Distress • Interest • Surprise • Joy Izard argued that: • These emotions cannot be broken down into simpler emotions. • They can combine to form more complex emotional experiences. • Each emotion has its own neural basis . • Each has a distinct pattern of expression , especially facial expressions. • Every emotion is experienced in a unique way . 2.4 Plutchik’s Theory of Emotion Robert Plutchik proposed that there are eight primary emotions , each linked to survival: • Anger • Fear • Sadness • Disgust • Surprise

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    Study Guide • Expectancy • Acceptance • Joy According to Plutchik: • These emotions support adaptive behaviors needed for survival. • Other emotions are variations or combinations of these eight. • Emotions can differ in intensity , strength , and duration . This theory helps explain why emotions can feel mild at times and overwhelming at others. 2.5 The Opponent - Process Theory of Emotion The opponent - process theory , developed by Richard Solomon and John Corbit , focuses on emotional balance in the body. The key ideas are: • Emotions disrupt the body’s state of balance (homeostasis) . • Emotions occur in opposing pairs , such as: o Pleasure ↔ Pain o Fear ↔ Relief o Depression ↔ Elation When one emotion is experienced, its opposite emotion is also triggered. • Over time, the opponent emotion reduces the intensity of the first emotion. • Eventually, it can cancel it out . Example A rock climber may feel intense fear during early climbs. Over time, however, the thrill and relief of reaching the top safely begin to outweigh the fear. Application to Addiction Some psychologists use this theory to explain drug addiction :

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    Study Guide • The pleasure from a drug decreases over time due to the opponent process. • More of the drug is needed to feel the same pleasure. • Without the drug, the person experiences withdrawal pain . Key Takeaway Each theory offers a unique way to understand emotions: • Some focus on dimensions of feeling. • Others emphasize biological programming , primary emotions , or emotional balance . • Together, they show that emotions are complex , adaptive , and deeply connected to both the brain and behavior. 3. Nonverbal Communication of Emotion Emotions are not expressed only through words. Much of what we communicate about how we feel happens without speaking at all. This is called nonverbal communication of emotion , and it plays an important role in both human and animal behavior. 3.1 What Ethologists Study Ethologists are scientists who study behavior , especially in animals. They are interested in how emotions are communicated through intention movements — small actions that signal what an individual is likely to do next. For example: • When a dog bares its teeth , it signals aggression or a possible attack. • When a dog wags its tail , it often signals friendliness or excitement. These signals communicate future actions clearly. Both humans and other animals can understand them.

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