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    Study Guide Psychology – Psychology: Learning 1. Classical Conditioning 1.1 What Is Classical Conditioning? Classical conditioning (also called Pavlovian conditioning ) is a basic form of learning that happens through reflexes . It was first studied by Ivan Pavlov . Pavlov noticed something interesting while working with dogs. His dogs began salivating before food was actually placed in their mouths . They reacted simply to signals that usually came before food, such as footsteps or sounds. This observation led Pavlov to discover that a neutral stimulus , like a buzzer or a light, could be linked to a natural reflex if the correct sequence of events was used. 1.2 Key Elements of Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning depends on four main components . Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) • A stimulus that naturally and automatically causes a response • No learning is required Examples: • Food • A puff of air blown into the eye Unconditioned Response (UCR) • A natural, unlearned reaction to the UCS • Also called a reflex

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    Study Guide Examples: • Salivation in response to food • Eye blink in response to a puff of air Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • A stimulus that is initially neutral • Does not cause the reflex at first • Becomes meaningful through learning Example: • The sound of a buzzer Conditioned Response (CR) • A learned response • The same reaction as the UCR • Now occurs in response to the CS alone Example: • Eye blink caused by the buzzer The Four - Step Process of Classical Conditioning The process using the eye - blink example . Step 1: Present the CS The buzzer (CS) is presented several times. At first, it does not cause an eye blink. CS (buzzer) → UCS (air puff) → UCR (eye blink) → CR (eye blink) (CS → UCS → UCR → CR sequence showing buzzer followed by air puff)

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    Study Guide Step 2: Pair CS with UCS Each time the buzzer sounds, it is followed very closely by a puff of air (UCS) . Step 3: UCS Produces the UCR The puff of air naturally causes an eye blink (UCR) . Step 4: CS Produces the CR After many pairings: • The buzzer is presented alone • If the subject blinks, the blink is now a conditioned response (CR) CS (buzzer) → CR (eye blink) (CS → CR sequence showing buzzer alone causing eye blink) At this point, learning (conditioning) has occurred . Higher - Order Conditioning Classical conditioning can go one step further. This is called higher - order conditioning , where new learning builds on previous learning . How It Works • A new stimulus is paired with an already learned CS • The new stimulus eventually produces the response on its own Example: • A light is always turned on before the buzzer • The buzzer already causes an eye blink • Eventually, the light alone causes the blink Here: • The buzzer now acts like a UCS • The light becomes a new CS

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    Study Guide CS (light) → UCS (buzzer) → UCR (eye blink) → CR (eye blink) (Higher - order sequence: light → buzzer → air puff → blink) Result of Higher - Order Conditioning After learning is complete: • The light alone produces an eye blink CS (light) → CR (eye blink) Important Terms in Classical Conditioning Acquisition • The learning phase • Occurs when the CS and UCS are paired • Learning happens faster when the time gap between CS and UCS is short Extinction • The process of unlearning • Happens when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS • The conditioned response gradually disappears Spontaneous Recovery • After extinction, the CR may reappear briefly • This return is temporary • The response will fade again unless the UCS is reintroduced

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    Study Guide Key Points to Remember • Classical conditioning is learning by association • UCS → UCR is natural and unlearned • CS → CR is learned • Learning can extend through higher - order conditioning • Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery describe different stages of conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning 2.1 What Is Operant Conditioning? Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is shaped by its consequences . It is called operant conditioning because the learner operates on the environment — that is, the learner does something and experiences the result. An early explanation of this kind of learning was given by Edward Thorndike , who called it instrumental learning . He used this term because the behavior is instrumental in getting a reward. Both operant conditioning and classical conditioning are sometimes called S – R learning , because a stimulus (S) becomes linked to a response (R) . 2.2 The Law of Effect Thorndike proposed the law of effect , which explains how operant conditioning works. According to this law: • Behaviors followed by a satisfying outcome are more likely to be repeated • Behaviors followed by an unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur again This idea became the foundation of operant conditioning.

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    Study Guide 2.3 The Operant Box A special device called an operant box (or Skinner box ) was developed by B. F. Skinner to study operant conditioning. In this box: • An animal (often a rat or pigeon) can perform a behavior, such as pressing a bar • The behavior leads to a consequence, such as receiving food Operant conditioning does not require an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) or conditioned stimulus (CS), although signals can be used along with reinforcement and shaping. 2.4 Shaping In operant conditioning, the learner must first perform a behavior before it can be rewarded. Shaping is the process of rewarding small steps that gradually lead to the desired behavior. Example: Teaching a Rat to Press a Bar The rat is rewarded step by step: 1. Going near the bar 2. Touching the bar 3. Pressing the bar At first, each step is rewarded. Eventually, only the final behavior (pressing the bar) is rewarded. With humans, shaping can sometimes be done using verbal instructions . 2.5 Reinforcement Reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. The event that follows the behavior is called a reinforcer . There are two main types of reinforcement .

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    Study Guide 2.6 Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement occurs when a pleasant or desirable stimulus is added after a behavior, making that behavior more likely. Examples: • A student gets a better grade after rewriting a paper • A rat presses a bar and receives food • Praise, money, food, or privileges can all be positive reinforcers Animals are often slightly deprived of food or water so that these rewards are more effective. 2.7 Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement increases behavior by removing or avoiding something unpleasant . The goal is not punishment, but escape or avoidance . Examples: • A rat learns to move to the right in a maze to avoid an electric shock • A child cleans up toys to avoid being punished • A loud noise stops when a button is pressed Negative reinforcement increases behavior , even though something unpleasant is involved. 2.8 Punishment Punishment is different from negative reinforcement. • Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior • The unpleasant stimulus is experienced , not avoided Example: • A student receives an F for not studying Interestingly, punishment can later act as a negative reinforcer . The student may study more in the future to avoid receiving another F .

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    Study Guide 2.9 Schedules of Reinforcement Reinforcement does not always happen after every response. Continuous Reinforcement • Every correct response is reinforced • Leads to fast learning • But behavior is easily extinguished 2.10 Intermittent Reinforcement • Only some responses are reinforced • Learning is slower • Behavior is more resistant to extinction This resistance is called the partial reinforcement effect . 2.11 Types of Reinforcement Schedules Fixed - Ratio Schedule • Reinforcement after a set number of responses • Leads to fast learning and steady responding Variable - Ratio Schedule • Reinforcement after a changing number of responses • Produces the highest rate of responding • Very resistant to extinction • Example: gambling or slot machines

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    Study Guide Fixed - Interval Schedule • Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time • Responses increase as the reward time approaches • Few responses right after reinforcement Variable - Interval Schedule • Reinforcement after varying time intervals • Produces steady but slower responding Interesting note: Most jobs pay on a fixed - interval schedule . Productivity might increase if rewards were given more frequently, such as bonuses (fixed - ratio). 2.12 Primary and Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers • Naturally rewarding or punishing • Do not require learning Examples: • Food • Water • Painful electric shock Secondary Reinforcers • Originally neutral • Gain value through learning Examples: • Grades (A or F) • Money • Praise or symbols of success

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