Theories Of Personality, Australian Edition Class Notes

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CHAPTER ONEStudyingPersonality: Assessment, Research, and TheoryLEARNING OBJECTIVES1.Describe the development of the history of personality.2.Explain the definitions of psychology.3.Describe how ethnic and gender issues affect personality development.4.Describe the concepts of assessment and research in the study ofpersonality.5.Explain and give examples of various types of assessment instrumentsused in studying personality.6.Describe the theories ofpersonality and inquire about human nature byasking questions for further discussion throughout the pages of this text.OUTLINEI.The Study of PersonalityA.The Place of Personality in the History of Psychology1.Psychology emerged from ideas borrowed from philosophy andphysiology to become an independent and primarilyexperimental science.Inthe early 20thcentury, Wilhelm Wundtwas largely responsible for this development as he establishedthe first psychology laboratory. Concerned with studying humanbehavior, psychologists studied only those processes whichcould be controlled or manipulated by the experimenter.2.John B. Watson, an American psychologist,opposed Wundt’sfocus on conscious experience. Watson’s movement was calledbehaviorism. Behaviorism presents a mechanistic picture ofhuman beings as well-ordered machines that automaticallyrespond to external stimuli.3.Freud called his theory of personalitypsychoanalysis.Psychoanalysis wasbased on his clinical observations of hispatient’s feelings and past experiences,which he creativelyinterpreted.4.In the 1930s, Gordon Allport formalized and systematized thestudy of personality in American psychology.Since Allport’s

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Chapter 1time, the study of personality includes the life span approach,thetrait approach,the humanistic approach, the cognitive approach,as well as psychoanalysisand behaviorism.B.Definitions of Personality1.Personalityisderivedfrom the Latin wordpersona, which refersto a mask used by actors in a play. We may concludethatpersonality refers to our external and visible characteristics,(theaspects of us that other people can see). However, the wordpersonalitymay refer to enduring characteristics, which may bestable or not stable over a person’s life. Adefinition ofpersonalitycould be “an enduring and unique cluster ofcharacteristics that may change in response to differentsituations.”C.Personality: the Internet, and Social Networking1.Research shows that most people are honest about theironlinefaces.Studies suggest that social networking sitesdoconvey accurate images or impressions of the personalityprofiles we offer, however;a person maywant to impress others.Researchers have shown that online social networking sites likeFacebook can both shape and reflect our personalities.C.Ethnic and Gender Issues in Personality1.Mostearlystudiesbypersonality theoristsused participants thatwerenearly allwhitemenof European or Americanheritage.The study of ethnic minorities was limited. And yet, thepersonality theorists would imply that their scientific findingsconcerning personality were valid forallpeople, regardless ofgender, race, or ethnic origin. Today, researchacross cultures,naturalisticobservations,and our own experiences tell us thatculture and ethnic issues really impact personality.D.Assessment in the Study of Personality1.Assessment measures are vital in our attempt to understandpersonality by differentiating between normal and abnormalbehaviors and feelings. Clinicians are able to diagnosedisorders and determine the best course of therapy. Schoolpsychologists assess studentlearning problems;counselingpsychologists measure job applicants for certain employmentrequirements. Psychologistsconductingresearch assess theparticipants to account for their behavior in an experiment or tocorrelate their personality traits with other measurements.2.Standardizationinvolves the consistency or uniformity ofconditions and procedures for administering a test. Everyone

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The Study of Personality:Assessment, Research, and Theorytaking a test must take the test under the same conditions and inthe same or similar environment as others.Reliabilityinvolvesthe consistency of response to an assessment device. There areseveral methods to determine the reliability of a test before use.Thetest-retest methodinvolves giving a subject the same testtwice over a period of time to see if the two sets of scores on thetests are highly correlated. Reliability is further measured by theuse of theequivalent-forms method, which consists of twocomparable forms of a test. Thesplit-halves methodis where atest is administered once and then the scores of half the test arecompared with the scores of the other half.Validityrefers towhether the assessment device measures what it is intended tomeasure. A good test must first have good validity and goodreliability.Predictive validityis a prediction, (before the test isgiven)onhow well future behaviorcan be predictedby the testscores.Content validityrefers to the test’s individual items orquestions, and whetheror notthey describe behavior accuratelylike we want them to do.Construct validityrelates to a test’sability to measure a construct, such as a question concerningbehavior,like a trait or motive.3.Theself-report inventoryapproach involves a paper-and-penciltype test which subjects complete by themselves about their ownbehavior and feelings. TheMinnesota Multiphasic PersonalityInventory (MMPI) is the most widely used psychological test. Atrue-false test consisting of 567 statements for assessingpersonality issues,this test is a valid measurethatcandiscriminate between neurotics and psychotics and betweenemotionally healthy and emotionally disturbed persons(MMPI-2).TheCalifornia Psychological Inventory(CPI)provides 17personality dimensions. These self-report measures areobjective in their scoring and have led to the widespread use ofautomated personality assessment programs on a computer.However, research has shown that minor changes in the wordingof such tests can lead to major changes in the results. A test-taker may give more socially acceptable answers, especiallywhen taking tests for employment.Many Self-Report Inventoriescan be taken on a computer laptop, easing the constraints ofadministration with no significant difference in results over paperand pencil tests. Test-takers report greater privacy and a senseof anonymity when revealing personal information.4.Projective techniques were developed to probe into theunconscious and were inspired by Freud’s work. The testspresent a stimulus, such as an inkblot or a picture which canthen be interpreted, especially with those who may beemotionally disturbed.Projective testsare subjective and arenothigh in reliability or validity. TheRorschach InkblotTechniqueis a test with 10 cards of black and sometimes

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Chapter 1colored ink. The subject is asked what they perceive in theinkblots. Responses are interpreted by the examiner. Severalinterpretation systems are available for scoring theRorschachbut it is a less valid test thantheMMPI. TheThematicApperception Test (TAT)consists of 20 vague pictures. Thesubject is asked to make up a story about what they perceive inthe pictures. The interpreter subjectively scores the TAT andthese scores areused to measure specific aspects ofpersonality, suchas the needs for achievement, affiliationandpower.Wordassociations andsentencecompletions requireemotional responses from the client;however, interpretation ofresults can be highly subjective.Clinical interviews, along withpsychological tests,help evaluate the effects of past and presentlife experiences, general appearance, behavior, degree of self-insight and contact with reality.5.Behaviorassessmentsare given with the use ofquestionnaires, while positive and negative experiences areobserved in the use ofthoughtsampling. This procedure istypically used with groups.6.According to the authors, the assessment of personality can beinfluenced by a person’s gender. For example, women scorehigher in depression, anxiety, and related disorders than men.More women are seen in therapy and for longer periods of timethan men.7.Some personality tests have been translated for use in othercultures;however there might be potential problems with“westernizing” important personality characteristics such as closefamily orientation, emphasizing harmony with others, andshowing frugality in everyday lives. These values are importantto Asian cultures, but not as valued in western cultures.Whenusing assessment measures,the authors caution thatpsychological assessment techniques were developedlargely formiddle-class European-American populations.Culturalvariations, various religious viewpoints and diversity must alsobe considered in the evaluative process. This requiresknowledge of cultural differences and sensitivity in theassessment process.E.Research in the Study of Personality1.Theclinical methodused in personality research is thecasestudy, which researches patients’past and present to help withtheir emotional problems. Freud used psychoanalysis in his casestudies to develop his theory of personality. Here, thepsychologists would use techniques such as dream analysis,tests, and interviews to obtain data for assessment. However,

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The Study of Personality:Assessment, Research, and Theorythe type of data obtained could be less accurate than either theexperimental or correlational methods and could lead to differentinterpretations. For example, memories from childhood that areremembered as an adult may become distorted with time. Onecannot control the preciseness of their own memories of the pastwhen comparedto memories that othershave ofthe same lifeevents.2.There are two kinds of variables in an experiment. One is theindependent or stimulus variable, which is manipulated by theexperimenter.Thedependent variableis the researchparticipants’ behavior or response to that manipulation. Theexperimental groupincludes the research participants to whomthe experimental treatment is given, while thecontrol groupisnot exposed to the independent variable.3.Thecorrelational methodinvestigates the relationships thatexist among variables and how behavior on one variablechanges or differs as a function of the other variable. Thereliability and validity of assessment devices are typicallydetermined through the correlational method. The statisticalmeasure we use to compare the variables is thecorrelationcoefficient. The relationship of the variables could be positiveor negative, with a perfect correlation having a correlationcoefficient of +1.00 or-1.00. The stronger the relationship,themore confidentwe becomein making predictions about onevariable to another. We cannot determinecause and effect withcorrelational research.Even though there may be a strongrelationship between variables, this does not mean that onecaused the other.F.Theory in the Study of Personality1.Theories are sets of principles used to explain a particular classof phenomena, such as behaviors and experiences relating topersonality. Researchers must be able to conduct experiments todetermine whether aspects of the theory should be accepted orrejected.2.Formaltheories are based on data from observations of largenumbers of persons. We can generalize from formal theoriesmore effectively to explain and predict the behavior of morekinds of people.Personaltheories are based on ourselves andothers. With personal theories, we tend to evaluate ourreactions to people we study with our own personal thoughts andfeelings.3.The intent of formal theories is greater objectivity; personaltheories tend to be more subjective. Personality theories are

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Chapter 1more subjective and may relate events in a theorist’s life, muchlike an autobiography. The first stage in constructing a theorymay be based on intuition,which is latermodified and refined bythe theorist’s knowledge and experience. There is a sense ofthe autobiographical nature of personality in this text. There mayalso be distortions or errors in our information about a theorist.G.Questions about Human Nature1.Each theorist has a conception of human nature. The study ofthese different theories allows meaningful comparisons of humannature.2.The question of whether or not weas humans have free willornotis addressed by theorists in thetext. The second area ofquestioning is with nature or nurture. Do our abilities,temperaments, and predispositionsdetermine our personality, orare we influenced mainly by our parents, education, andtraining? Do past events,such as experiences in earlychildhood,shape our personalities to the point that is critical forpersonality development? This view is known ashistoricaldeterminism. The opposite position considers personality to bemore independent of the past, capable of being influenced byevents and experiences in the present as well as the future. Ishuman nature unique or universal? Theorists differ on whatconstitutes our major motivation in life. Are we like machinesthat only seek equilibrium or balance? Are we optimistic orpessimistic? The final question addressed in this text is in termsof cultural influences. Are we influenced by culture, religion,individualism, or groupness?The impact of cultural issues inpersonality development hasbeen seen to be significant inresearch.LECTURE TOPIC 1.1My own Theory of PersonalityStudents are to create (in groups or individually)their idea of the “perfect”person. Have the groupsor individualsbrainstorm ideas to come up with alist oftraitsthat describethis “perfect” individual. An artistic rendering by thegroup or individual would be an added ingredient as a visual report for theentire class when reporting on their findings. Part of the purpose of thisexercise is for the student to understand what a personality theorist needs todo in order to create their own theory. Elements of the “perfect” person maybe drawn from characteristics in genetics, the influence of the environment,traits, and/or cultural and ethnic background.

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CHAPTER TWO:Sigmund Freud:PsychoanalysisLEARNING OBJECTIVES1.Describe the development of the psychoanalytic approach topersonality.2.Provide a foundation of psychoanalyticthought through the study of itsfounder, Sigmund Freud.3.Describe the structure of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego.4.Explain the concepts of defense mechanisms against anxiety.5.Detail the psychosexual stages of personality development.6.Describe free association and dream analysis used by Freud forassessment.7.Explain the extensions of Freudian theory withego psychology andObject Relations Theory.OUTLINEI.The Life of Freud (1856-1939)1.Freud was born in Moravia in 1856. His father was a Jewishwool merchant. Since the age of five, Freud lived most of his lifein Vienna, Austria. Freud had a passionate, sexual attachmenttowards his mother and childhood hostility towards his meekfather. Many of his childhood experiences would influence histheories later in life. There were eight children in the family, butSigmund had special privileges, such as his own room. Studyingincessantly, Freud enteredhigh school a year earlier andbecame fluent in several languages. Freud trained to be aphysician and researched fish and eels. Freud alsoexperimented with cocaine, before it became illegal. Freudunknowingly harmed a friend by prescribing cocaine and hadused cocaine for himself.2.Because Freud lacked an independent income, he enteredprivate practice in Vienna. He studied with Jean Charcot in Parisand learned how to use the technique of hypnotism forthetreatment of neurosis.

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Chapter 23.Freud became convinced that sexual conflicts werethe primarycause of all neuroses. Freud claimed that childhood fantasies ofsexual events were quite common for all children. Whetherthese memories are from true events or just sexual fantasies iscontroversial today.4.Freud’s attitude toward sex was negative and felt that sex wasdegrading, because it contaminated the mind and body. Freud,although having children, felt resentful toward his sex life with hiswife. Freud diagnosed himself, as having an anxiety neurosis ashe learned to psychoanalyze himself through the study ofdreams. He was able to recall his dreams and interpret theirmeanings.5.Freud began to publish articles and books and he also presentedpapers at scientific meetings. His disciples or followers includedCarl Jung and Alfred Adler. Jung later broke with Freud indisputing Freud’s approach to psychoanalysis. Freud receivedan honorary doctoral degree at Clark University in the UnitedStates in 1909, where his theories were warmly welcomed. Bythe 1920s and 1930s Freud was having much success, howeverhe was to die several years later.Freud’s books were burned bythe Nazis and he fled to England where he died in 1939 by anoverdose of morphine that was given deliberately by hisphysician.B.Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality1.Instinctsare the basic elements of the personality, themotivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction.Instincts, such as hunger and thirst,are internal. These instinctsmotivatepeopleto behave in a way that satisfies the need.When the body is in a state of need, we become motivated torestore and maintain equilibrium by satisfying the need. Theseinstincts are the source of energy for human behavior, but thisenergy may be expressed in a variety of interests, preferences,and attitudes.2.Thelife instinctsare oriented toward growth and developmentand the psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is thelibido. According to Freud, the most important life instinct issex. Sex becomes our primary motivation, such as in eroticwishes.Death instinctsare the opposite of life instincts and onecomponent is the aggressive drive which compels us to destroy,conquer, and kill.C.The Levels of Personality1.There are two levels of personality, according to Freud. The

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysisconsciouscorresponds to its ordinary everyday meaning. Theunconsciousis the invisible portion of personality below thesurface. The unconscious becomes the major driving powerbehind all behaviors and we are not able to control this portion.D.The Structure of Personality: Id, Ego, and Superego1.Theidis the reservoir for the instincts and the libido. The id ispowerful in the structure of personality because it supplies all theenergy for the other two components. The id functions toincrease pleasure and avoid pain, so id is driven by thepleasureprinciple.2.Theegois the rational master of the personality and is driven byreality principle. The purpose of the egois tohelp the idobtaintension reduction in the personality. Thesuperegois theinternal moral rules of conduct,which forms whether we areperceived as being good or bad. The superego is a powerfulforce in its quest of moral perfection.E.Anxiety: A threat to the Ego1.Freud describedanxietyas an objectless fear to a specificobject that induced it. When we cannot cope with anxiety, whenwe are in danger of being overwhelmed by it;the anxiety is saidto be traumatic.2.There are three types of anxiety.Realityorobjective anxietyinvolves a fear of tangible dangers in the real world.Neuroticanxietyhas its basis in childhood, in a conflict betweeninstinctual gratification and reality. The third type isMoralanxietywhich results from a conflict between the id and thesuperego. This is a fear of one’s conscience.F.Defenses againstAnxiety1.If rational techniques to reduce tension do not work, then theperson may resort to one or severaldefense mechanisms.Freud believed that defenses must, to some extent, always be inoperation. These mechanisms deny or distort reality andoperate unconsciously.2.Repressionis an involuntary removal of something from theconscious awareness.Denialis related to repression andinvolves denying the existence of some external threat ortraumatic event that has occurred. One defense against adisturbing impulse is to actively express the opposite impulse,which is calledreaction formation.Another way of defendingagainst disturbing impulses is to attribute them to someone else.

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Chapter 2This is calledprojection.Regressionis the defensemechanism where a person retreats or regresses to an earlierperiod of life that is pleasant and free of frustration and anxiety.Rationalizationis a defense mechanism that involvesreinterpreting our behavior to make it seem more rational andacceptable to us. If an object that satisfies an id impulse is notavailable, the person may shift the impulse to another object.This isdisplacement. Finally,sublimationinvolvesthe alteringof the id impulses to more socially acceptable behaviors.G.Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development1.Each of these stagesisdefined by an erogenous zone of thebody. In each developmental stage a conflict exists that must beresolved before the infant or child can progress to the next stage.2.Theoralstagelasts from birth until some time in the secondyear of life. This stage is where the infant’s principal source ofpleasure is the mouth. Since the infant is in the primary care ofthe mother, the infant loves the mother and is satisfied. Theanalstage begins about the age of 18 months, when a newdemand, toilet training,is involved. Defecation, Freud believed,produces erotic pleasure for the child, but with the onset of toilettraining the infant has to delay this pleasurable act. In the fourthor fifth year, thephallicstage begins. The focus shifts from theanus to the genitals, where the child again has to control theirimpulse in manipulating their genitals. TheOedipus complexisused by Freud to describe a boy or girl who desires to havesexual relations with their opposite sex parent. The boy or girlsees the same sex parent as a rival for their affections, so theymay become hostile or jealous of the parents’ love relationship.A girl would developpenis envy, because she believes she mayhave lost her penis. Incastration anxiety, a boy would beafraid of losing his penis if the father was to discover the boy’slove for his mother. Thelatencyperiodlasts for five or six yearswhere the sexinstinctis dormant. The final stage is thegenitalstage, which begins at puberty. In this stage, the adolescentmust conform to social sanctions and taboos that existconcerning sexual expression, but conflict is minimized throughsublimation.H.Questions About Human Nature and Assessment in Freud’s Theory1.In Freud’s system there is only oneultimate and necessary goalin life: to reduce tension. Freud found little he liked abouthumanity.He was deterministic in his viewpoint of people andjudged them harshly.I.Assessment in Freud’sTheory

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis1.Freud considered the unconscious to be the motivating force inlife. He developedfree associationin which he would ask thepatienttoexpress spontaneously every idea and image thatcame to the patient’s mind. Freud would then analyze andinterpret these associations. Some memories might have beentoo painful to recall. Freud called these momentsresistances.Dream analysiswas used to assess what dreams represent,in symbolic form, along with repressed desires, fears, andconflicts.I.Research in Freud’s Theory1.Freud’s major research method was thecase study. Thesetypes of studies are neither replicable nor generalizable to otherpeople. Freud did not keep verbatim records of his therapysessions, so the data may have been incomplete, consisting ofwhat he last remembered. Some critics have suggested thatFreud’s patients did not actually reveal childhood sexualexperiences, because, in most cases, those experiences neveroccurred. Freud’s cases were restricted to young, unmarried,upper-class women of good education; nota very broad sampleof the population of his time.2.Since Freud’s death, many of his ideas have been submitted toexperimental testing. Some Freudian concepts—the id, ego,superego, death wish, libido, and anxiety could not be tested bythe experimental method. Researchers found no evidence tosupport the psychosexual stages of development or arelationship between Oedipal variables and sexual difficultieslater in life.Research has been done in the area ofsubliminalperception,which supports the idea that people may beinfluenced by stimuli of which they are not consciously aware. Inresearch findings, too much or too littleego controlisconsidered maladaptive, whilehighego resiliencyis positivelycorrelated with IQ, good grades, and even popularity.Catharsisis popularly expressed as having an ability to express emotion toreduce anxiety and depression. In more negative settings,research has shown that subjects under much stress usedisplacementas a viable option which researchers concludethat anger is maintained and more likely to be expressed in anaggressive manner. A person who usesrepression,andthereforepushestheir memories from conscious awareness,ismore likelyto be identified as personally and emotionallythreatened by recall of previous traumatic events or by negativeexperience in the present. The efficacy and impact of dreaminterpretations, psychosexual personality types, aggressivenessand age,and overall personality types have been researchedwith mixed results.Incidentally,research intoFreudian slips,which is forgetting orsubstitution in usage of speech,indicates

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Chapter 2that hidden anxieties can have their embarrassing momentswhen we speak. Finally, the area of research intorepressedmemories of childhood abuseindicates that a person canindeed forget these memories for years. However, evidence hasalso been shown thatfalse memoriescan easily be implantedand appear to be real to the person or even as threatening as anauthentic or real memory.J.Extensions of Freudian Theory1.AnnaFreudwas Sigmund’s youngest and most favoreddaughter. At age 22, Anna began four years of psychoanalysisconducted by her father. He was later criticized for analyzing hisown daughter. Analyzingone’s child was a serious violation ofFreud’s rules for the practice of psychoanalysis. She devotedher life to her father and his system of psychoanalysis. Annaworked with children, expanded the role of the ego, and arguedthat the ego operates independently of the id. Anna Freudclarified the operation of the defense mechanisms, which may beher most significant contribution to psychoanalysis.2.Object relations theoriesfocus more on interpersonalrelationships than on instinctual drives. They place particularemphasis on the mother-child relationship, suggesting that thecore of personality is formed at infancy. The object relationstheorist also see as critical the emergence in the early yearsofastrong sense of self and the maturing of relations with objectsother than the mother.Heinz Kohut’sinterest is on theformation of the nuclear self, which he described as thefoundation for becoming an independent person.Melanie Kleinformulated a system of personality development that focused onthe intense emotional relationship between infant and mother.Emphasizing the first 5 to 6 months of a child’s life, Kleinassumed babies are born with active fantasy lives that harbormental representations (images) of Freudian id instincts, whichthe images temporarily satisfy.Margaret Mahler, a pediatrician,observed the relationship that developed between the infant andmother. She argued that newborns are incapable ofdistinguishing between themselves and everything else that isnot themselves. The infant must learn how to separate from themother,which involves psychic energy in interpersonal or objectrelationships rather than the sexual energy that Freud proposed.K.Reflections on Freud's Theory1.Psychoanalysis has contributed and influenced psychology fromthe early 20th century in the study of personality and motivation inpsychology. Many of the Freudian concepts, such as the role ofthe unconscious, the importance of childhood experiences in

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Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysisshaping adult behavior and theoperation of defense mechanisms,have been absorbed into contemporary psychology.However, a growing number of people are choosing lessexpensive and time-consuming treatment programs. Freud’scasestudy approach raises issues by experimental psychologists.Freud's emphasis on past behaviors, unhealthy behaviors, andconcepts of inferiority of women are criticized. Sigmund Freudgave personality theorists a solid, challenging base on which tobuild.CLASS DISCUSSION TOPICSClass Discussion Topic 2.1Students are to discuss the use of drugs, such as cocaine,in Freud’s time.There was no Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to require tests to be runon animal and human subjects for safety. Was Freud really responsible forthe death of one of his friends in giving him a lethal dose of cocaine? WasFreud using “good practice” when he prescribed the medication? Do youbelieve, based on the text and your own research, that Freud was addictedto cocaine well beyond middle age? Have students break up in groups todiscuss these questions and then present their findings to the whole class.Class Discussion/Exercise Topic 2.2Brainstorm the origins of anxiety on the board with your students. Namesome environmental, social, physical and mental causes of anxiety. Nowtake at least two items from each category and construct a neurotic patient.This patient will be role-played by one student as another student takes therole of the therapist trained in psychoanalysis. Have the therapist use thefree association method to bring to the conscious the anxieties that havebeen listed for the patient.

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Sigmund Freud: PsychoanalysisSTUDENT PROJECTSStudent Project 2.1Freud used the case study method to study his patients. Unfortunately,Freud did not use verbatims,(writing down what the client would say,immediately after a therapy session). If Freud was here today, he may wellhave used an audioor videotape recorder; since he avoided writing notesdown right after his session.For this project, the student could list threeadvantages and three disadvantages in the use of tape recorders bystudents. The students in your class could also do a "mock" video or audiorecording of a session with someone using the techniques of dream analysisand free association popularized by Freud.Student Project 2.2Havestudents(in class or an online environment)submit a video/audio"mock" session of a psychoanalytic session. This could be an individual oreven a group project. Students would use the techniques of dream analysisand free association popularized by Freud.Student Project 2.3In this project,the student is to consider the superego. Freud suggested thesuperego is the moral restraint that is needed, combined with the idand theego. The following website suggests a link between the superego of Freudand the moral and religious viewpoint of a “Higher Power”. The student is toread the article and explain the concept of this kind of “Higher PowerSuperego” in their own words. Does the author of this article believe thatFreud wouldhave come to this conclusion about the superego, if he had notrejected his own religious background? Defend your answer.Click on the Web:http://www.earthtym.net/conscience.htmStudent Project 2.4The following web article will help the studentcritically examine Freud’ssuperego and the schools of psychoanalysis and the goals ofpsychotherapy. Students are to write a five page critique of the superegoand how this concept might be related in psychoanalysis.Click on the Web:http://freud.org.uk/education/topic/10575/subtopic/40017/

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Chapter 2ONLINE DISCUSSION BOARDEach student is to answer the following questions by giving their ownopinions. TWO CAUTIONS:A.When you share personal information; remember, thisinformation is NOTconfidential.B.Be nice, encouraging, and uplifting when yourespond to another person.1.Freud voiced strong opinions about religion. In your own opinion, (1) whatwere they; and, (2) what is your opinion of his views?2.Freud’s clients seemed to be mostly female. (1) Explain, in yourownwords,whyhe might have chosen women almost exclusively for his work intherapy.(2) Do you believe he was successful in helping his clients?Explain your answer.

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