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A History Of Modern Psychology, 10th Edition Lecture Notes

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    1 I. A HISTORY OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY TENTH EDITION Duane P. Schultz Sydney Ellen Schultz (i)

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    2 Table of Contents 1. The Study of the History of Psychology 1 2. Philosophical Influences on Psychology 30 3. Physiological Influences on Psychology 71 4. The New Psychology 104 5. Structuralism 138 6. Functionalism: Antecedent Influences 165 7. Functionalism: Development and Founding 1 97 8. Applied Psychology: The Legacy of Functionalism 248 9. Behaviorism: Antecedent Influences 288 10. Behaviorism: The Beginnings 321 11. Behaviorism: After the Founding 349 12. Gestalt Psychology 395 13. Psychoanalysis: The Beginnings 429 14. Psychoanalysis: After the Founding 480 15. Contemporary Developments in Psychology 532 Chapter 1 The Study of the History of Psychology Why study the history of psychology? One reason is that the past is relevant for the present. For example, researchers in 1999 asked psychology students to watch a one - minute video of two teams of basketball players passing the ball to their teammates. Students were asked t o count the number of times the ball bounced during a particular team’s passes. Towards the end of the video, a person dressed in a large gorilla costume came out, stopped amidst the players, and pounded his chest. When asked if they saw anything besides the basketball players, only about half of the students could identify the gorilla. The study of The Invisible Gorilla suggests that people may find it difficult, if not impossible, to pay attention to more than one stimulus at a time. Similar results on the usefulness and effectiveness of multitasking were demonstrated in 1861 by a German psychologist. Thus, the histor y of psychology often informs the nature of psychology in the 21 st century. In other words,

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    3 history is important is because studying the evolution of psychologists’ thought will help students understand contemporary psychology. In addition, this course is being offered because faculty believes it to be an important contribution to the field. Courses about the history of psychology have been offered since at least 1911, and are currently offered in 93% of 311 psychology department s surveyed in 2010. Other sciences typically do not offer such a course. Furthermore, there are specialized journals, research centers, and even a division of APA dedicated to the history of psychology. Because there is no single form, approach, or defi nition of psychology on which all psychologists agree, present day psychology has become so diverse that our history is perhaps the one thing that provides order and imposes meaning to the seemingly chaotic field. Psychology can be considered both one of the oldest fields of study and one of the newest. It can be considered one of the oldest because its subject matter, the mind, can be traced back to the Greek philosophers in the fifth century BC. On the other han d, we can also view psychology as being about 200 years old if we mark our beginnings with the merging of physiology and philosophy. Psychology distinguished itself as a formal discipline in the last quarter of the nineteenth century when it shed philosop hical tools of speculation and intuition and adopted the tools used in biology and physical sciences. While the questions addressed by early psychologists were similar to their philosophical predecessors, carefully controlled observation and experimentati on set psychology apart as a field with increased precision and objectivity. History is quite different than psychology, so this course merges two distinct disciplines. The methods used to study history, broadly termed historiography, are quite different than those of science. History cannot be replicated, but is instead construc ted from the scraps of information found and interpreted by the historian, and historical data can be incomplete and incorrect for a variety of reasons. Some data have become lost, for example John Watson burned his letters, research notes, and unpublishe d manuscripts before he died. In other cases, data have been found decades or even centuries after having been lost, such as when some papers written by Hermann Ebbinghaus were found in 1984 or when missing letters written in 1641 by Rene Descartes were l ater recovered in 2010. Other times, information is purposefully withheld in order to protect the reputation of an individual, such as when Freud’s biographer, Ernest Jones, purposefully downplayed Freud’s cocaine use. Some data will be made available at a later time, for example, the Library of Congress in Washington D.C. is holding papers and letters from Freud’s estate with instructions not to release them until a certain time. Sometimes information is distorted, which is often seen in faulty translations, and can cause errors in either the meaning of the term or the emotions attached to them. For example, Freud’s original systems of personality were translated into Id, Ego, and Superego. A better translation of these ideas from their original German might be It, I, and above - I. Likewise, his idea translated as free - association is more accurately translated into something that conveys the idea of an invasion or intrusion of tho ught. Other historical data is inaccurate because individuals recount a biased perception of their lives to protect themselves or enhance their public image. In his autobiography, B. F. Skinner portrayed his graduate student days as being filled with not hing but work. Twelve years after the account was published, Skinner recanted his statement as being a “pose” rather than a reality. Some distortions can be resolved by consulting other sources. In this example, graduate student colleagues of Skinner re member him for finishing his work quickly in order to spend his afternoons playing ping pong.

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    4 Contextual forces such as the Zeitgeist of the time often shape the nature and direction of psychology. Every age has a Zeitgeist, which is the intellectual climate or spirit of the times. During the early years of the twentieth century, increased economi c opportunities coupled with changes in America’s demographic composition lead to a fundamental shift in emphasis. The focus of psychology went from the academic laboratory to using psychology to solve issues related to teaching and learning. World War I and II implemented another contextual shift as psychology extended its influence into personnel selection, psychological testing, and engineering psychology... During World War II, European researchers and theorists escaped to America, thereby relocating the forefront of the discipline to the United States. Finally, prevailing discrimination also shaped the field, with its impact on women, Jews, and African Americans. Women were often denied admission to graduate school or conferment of degrees, and later had a difficult time finding jobs particularly if mar ried. Eleanor Gibson, who later won a number of professional awards for her work in perceptual development and learning, was restricted from certain courses and areas on campus when she attended Yale. Such discrimination extended into 1960, when Sandra S carr was told by the officer interviewing her for admission that most women don’t finish their degrees, and the ones that do amount to nothing anyway. Despite such obstacles, women did attain doctoral degrees in psychology. One champion for the education of women was James McKeen Cattell, who supported women frequently, urging scientific societies to include women. Largely because of his efforts, the APA was the first scientific society to admit women as members. Mary Whiton Calkins became the first fem ale president of APA in 1905. Discrimination extended to Jewish psychologists as well. A study of discrimination of Jews at three universities — Harvard, Yale, and Princeton — found widespread practices that excluded Jews from admission. Those Jews who were admitted to colleges were ofte n separated and socially ostracized. Many colleges and universities, including two important to psychology (Johns Hopkins and Clark), had explicit policies to disallow Jewish students. In the face of such discrimination, some Jewish psychologists changed their names, which helped them secure jobs. Isadore Krechevsky became David Krech, David Bakanovsky became David Bakan, and Harry Israel (even though he was a protestant) changed his name to Harry Harlow. Some chose not to do this, for example Abraham Maslow refused to change his first name to something “less Jewish”. African Americans also faced an enormous amount of discrimination. When Black students were allowed to attend predominantly White universities, they were often not allowed to live on campus or mix socially with White students. Howard University in Washin gton D.C., a traditionally Black school, provided an education in Psychology for many Black students. Kenneth Clark graduated from Howard with his bachelor’s degree and was refused admittance to graduate school at Cornell. He received his doctoral degree from Columbia University, married Mamie Phipps Clark, and they both went on to perform their landmark study about the self - concept of Black children that was cited in the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision that ended racial segregation in schools. For those Black students who did receive their doctoral degrees, finding a job was the next obstacle, and many found work at the traditionally Black universities. Because so many of these universities were under funded, it was difficult for these psychologists to do research that received wide attention, therefore their work is less visible. Although the history of psychology is dominated by White male psychologists, it is important to bear in mind that we can only

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    5 focus on a few individuals. The overwhelming majority of psychologists, no matter what race or sex, receive no attention at all. There are two ways to conceptualize how history happens; the personalistic theory and the naturalistic theory. The personalistic theory is the view that the contributions of individuals is what fuels progress. With this theory, if these special individua ls had not done their work, their fields would not have progressed. The naturalistic theory is the idea that the times draw out ideas from people. For example, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace developed the idea of the theory of evolution indepen dent of (and half way around the world from) each other, indicating that the time was right for that idea to emerge. As further support, sometimes ideas are presented before their time. The Scottish scientist Robert Whytt presented the idea of the condit ioned response in 1763 but was largely ignored by his contemporaries. A century later, Ivan Pavlov expanded on Whytt’s ideas when the Zeitgeist was more receptive. The Zeitgeist may be directed by some individuals. Oftentimes journal editors can act as gatekeepers of mainstream ideas and refuse to publish papers that are revolutionary. Psychologist John Garcia tried to publish a paper that challenged prevailing thought on stimulus - response theory. Although the research was solid, he was only able to pu blish in journals that were less known. This book uses both the personalistic and naturalistic viewpoints, while highlighting the importance of the Zeitgeist in defining the history of psychology. Wilhelm Wundt, a German physiologist working in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, is often credited as the founder of psychology because he determined its goals, subject matter, research methods, and topics of investigation. Although Wilhelm Wun dt first defined and promoted psychology, challenges to his conception began quickly. By 1900, there were several organized positions that rose in opposition to Wundt’s psychology and to each other. Each of these was a “school of thought”, and a series o f them emerged, rose, and fell in succession as psychology developed over time. Thomas Kuhn wrote a book about how sciences develop over time called The Structure of Scientific Revolution . According to Kuhn, when a science has produced an accepted way of thinking and has matured, this way of thinking is called a paradigm. Paradigms are present in other science, for example for about 300 years the paradigm in physics was the Galilean - Newt onian framework. Paradigms can also change, in what Kuhn calls a scientific revolution, such as when Einstein’s model of physics became the paradigm . Because psychology remains divided, it is considered to be “preparadigmatic” — there is no prevailing school of thought. In fact, many contemporary psychologists criticize the field because of its fragmentation. To some extent, it has always been fragmented, because competing schools of thought have always been present. Oftentimes, new schools of thought are proposed and championed by younger psychologists. The schools of thought described in this book began wit h Wundt’s psychology and structuralism, followed by functionalism, behaviorism, and Gestalt psychology, all three of which opposed structuralism. At about the same time, psychoanalysis developed independent from (instead of in opposition to) these other s chools. Later, humanistic psychology develops as a reaction to both psychoanalysis and behaviorism. The last formal school discussed in the text is cognitive psychology which opposes behaviorism. Contemporary new foci in psychology include evolutionary psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and positive psychology.

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    6 Outline II. The Invisible Gorilla A. Study of multitasking and attention (Simon & Chabris, 1999) B. Conclusions similar to 1861 study C. Example of the past informing the present III. Why Study the History of Psychology? A. History of psychology: common requirement for majors B. Unique among the sciences in the focus on our history C. An area of status within psychology 1. journals 2. formal organizations a. APA Division 26 b. The Archives of the History of American Psychology) D. Rationale for studying the history of psychology 1. recognizes diversity within psychology 2. provides a framework for solidarity 3. emphasizes the relationships that make the whole cohesive 4. integrates topics and issues 5. is interesting in its own right IV. The Development of Modern Psychology A. Paradox: Psychology is both 1. a 2,500 year - old discipline a. traced to 5 th century B.C. speculation about human nature and behavior b. Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle wrestled with issues with issues still covered in introductory psychology classes. 2. a new discipline began 200 years ago a. formed when it emerged from (1) theories of philosophy (2) tools used in other biology and physical sciences B. Historical roots 1. philosophical in character 2. principal methods were speculation, intuition, and generalization C. Modern distinct from the old 1. a primary scientific field 2. applies tools and methods from biology and physiology 3. relies on controlled observation and experimentation 4. objectivity and precision are continually sought and refined D. represents a union of philosophy and physiology that emerged with its own character, status, and popularity E. a better starting point is the nineteenth century 1. psychology becomes independent 2. early philosophical approaches can be considered psychology’s “prehistory” V. The Data of History: Reconstructing Psychology’s Past A. Historiography: “the principles, methods, and philosophical issues of historical

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    7 research” B. The data of history are different than the data of sciences like psychology 1. there is no laboratory for historians in which situations are controlled and manipulated 2. there is no replication or independent verification of results C. The data of history 1. materials used to reconstruct lives, events, eras 2. unique: not replicable, conditions not controlled 3. data fragments: the shards D. Lost or suppressed data 1. lost permanently: Watson burning his papers 2. lost temporarily: found papers by Hooke, Ebbinghaus, Fechner 3. suppressed: Freud’s materials to be opened in the 21 st century 4. altered a. self - interest: Freud’s cases, Skinner’s youth b. to protect: Köhler’s papers, Freud’s cocaine use E. Data distorted in translation 1. Freud’s use of Es (it), Ich (I), and Über - Ich (above - I) 2. Freud’s Einfall, translated as free association, but meant intrusion F. Self - serving data 1. Skinner’s report as wholly “nose to the grindstone” 2. Freud’s self - depiction as a martyr to his cause VI. Contextual Forces in Psychology A. The Zeitgeist: “The intellectual and cultural climate or spirit of the times.” B. Economic opportunity as a contextual force 1. turn of the century: more PhDs than academic positions 2. rapid increase in U.S. immigration leads to swelling public school enrollment 3. American pragmatism: interest in the practical utility of psychology 4. result: shift in theoretical focus of psychology, increased application of psychology to “real - world” problems in education C. War as a contextual force 1. World War I : Application of psychology to personnel selection, psychological testing, and engineering psychology demonstrated the usefulness of psychology to the community at large 2. World War II a. leading European psychologists fled to the U.S. b. clinical psychologists: assessment and treatment 3. influence on theories: Freud’s Thanatos D. Prejudice as a contextual force 1. women denied admission to schools, denied jobs 2. Jews barred from many schools, difficulties finding academic positions so some change their names to secure positions 3. African American largely denied graduate study altogether, with rare exceptions 4. 1960 - APA made an effort to increase diversity through funding opportunities

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    8 5. effects of prejudice: to this day minorities and women as underrepresented on psychology faculties VII. Conceptions of Scientific History A . The personalistic theory of scientific history: “The view that progress and change in scientific history are attributable to the ideas of unique individuals” B. The naturalistic theory of scientific history: “The view that progress and change in scientific history are attributable to the Zeitgeist, which makes a culture receptive to some ideas but not to others” 1. Simultaneous discovery: Darwin and Wallace 2. Sometimes the discovery made before its time: Whytt 3. Dominant theories may stifle new thought: journal editors as gatekeepers C. This text uses both personalistic and naturalistic viewpoints D. Highlights the importance of the Zeitgeist in the analysis of history VIII. Schools of Thought in the Evolution of Modern Psychology A. Wundt 1. drew together the various philosophical and scientific lines to found psychology 2. psychology was shaped by his vision B. The term school of thought “refers to a group of psychologists who become associated ideologically, and sometimes geographically, with the leader of a movement” C. Thomas Kuhn (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 1. paradigm: “an accepted way of thinking within a scientific discipline that provides essential questions and answers” 2. preparadigmatic phase: the “stage in the development of a science when it is still divided into schools of thought” 3. paradigmatic phase: “The more mature or advanced stage in the development of a science...when the majority of the scientists agrees on theoretical and methodological issues....a common paradigm or model defines the entire field” D. Fragmentation characterizes psychology: it is preparadigmatic E. Schools of thought as protests against the current order that correct the predecessor’s errors and then incur their own protest IX. Plan of the Book A. Philosophical antecedents of experimental psychology B. Physiological antecedents of experimental psychology C. Wundt’s psychology D. Structuralism E. Functionalism F. Behaviorism G. Gestalt psychology H. Psychoanalysis I. Humanistic psychology J. Cognitive psychology K. Contemporary developments 1. evolutionary psychology 2. cognitive neuroscience 3. positive psychology

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    9 Lecture prompts/Discussion topics for chapter one • Use a salient recent event and ask your class how that event might currently shape the field of psychology (what gets funded, what gets studied). For examples, the terror attacks of 9/11 may have spurred interest and research in the psychology of terroris m, post - traumatic stress syndrome, psychology of fear, etc. The subsequent invasion of Iraq may have spiked interest in effective repatriation of soldiers, psychological warfare, effective recruiting techniques, etc. • Have the class suppose that one of them in the room will become a future eminent psychologist. What types of information might future historians of psychology use to piece together their current lives? How might this information differ from the informati on used to study an eminent psychologist who lived 100 years ago? Internet Resources for chapter one Today in the History of Psychology http://www.cwu.edu/~warren/today.html This site provides a listing of a number of historical events in psychology for any day of the year you submit. You can find out what has happened in psychology on your birthday in the past. Women in Psychology History http://psychology.okstate.edu/museum/women/cover2.html This site provides a listing of a number of women in psychology history, along with photographs and a listing of their accomplishments. Association for Women in Psychology http://www.awpsych.org/ This is a site that provides networking for women in psychology, as well as a list of resources for women psychologists and an email discussion list. Association for Black Psychologists http://www.abpsi.org/ This is a site that provides networking for Black Psychologists, and is an organization whose goal is to have a positive impact on the mental health of Black Americans. Thomas Kuhn http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/Kuhnsnap.html This site provides a summary of Kuhn’s life and works, and has a nice collection of links including some that summarize The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Potential answers to chapter one discussion questions 1) What can we learn from studying the history of psychology? The history of psychology has become a discipline in its own right; psychology departments offered history of psychology courses as early as 1911, there are journals dedicated to

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    10 publishing history of psychology papers, APA has division 26 (History of Psychology), and 93% of 311 surveyed psychology departments offer a course in History of Psychology. Understanding the history of and therefore the evolution of thought preceding co ntemporary psychology will help one to understand contemporary psychology. Furthermore, contemporary psychologists differ widely in the topic areas they study, but all psychologists share the history. A study of the history of psychology will bring cohes ion to the diverse discipline as a whole. 2) Why can psychologists claim that psychology is one of the oldest scholarly disciplines as well as one of the newest? Explain why modern psychology is a product of both nineteenth - century and twentieth - century thought? Psychology can trace its roots to the fifth century BC, to the Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates, because we grapple with the same questions they attempted to answer. On the other hand, we could view psychology as emerging when phi losophy and physiology merged to include experimentation and empirical methods to answer those questions about 200 years ago. Modern psychology can be considered a product of nineteenth - century thought because this is the time when the field developed its own independent methods and became its own independent discipline. One can also see the influence of the historical context on the formation of the field. The Zeitgeist of the time can have a tremendous influence on what the focus of psychology is at an y given time. For example, during the world wars, psychological testing, personnel selection, and engineering were emphasized. 3) In what ways do the data of history differ from the data of science? Give examples of how historical data can be distorted. History is different from science because historians must find, interpret, and assimilate scraps of information from a variety of sources to try to understand a complete picture. Such data cannot be reconstructed in a laboratory like a scientific experimen t can. John Watson burned his letters, manuscripts, and notes before he died. Some papers written by Hermann Ebbinghaus had been lost but were recently found. Another problem relates to the distortion of data through translations. Some of the terms Sig mund Freud used to label phenomena within psychoanalysis lost the original meaning intended by Freud when the terms were mistranslated into English. Some data of history are best described as being distorted to promote a particular impression of a person. In his autobiography, B.F. Skinner portrayed himself as doing nothing but work while he was a graduate student, although his classmates remember his Ping - Pong playing. 4) In what ways have contextual forces influenced the development of modern psychology? Psychology has been shaped by historical events. Economic conditions toward the late nineteenth century lead to more psychologists being trained than there were academic positions to employ them. At the same time, the increase in immigrants caused an inc rease in the number of students needing public education. Psychologists sought to apply their skills to educational settings. Thus, applied psychology mushroomed in America. Wartime has also shaped the field. World war II lead to the migration of resea rchers and theorists from Europe to the United States and thus the forefront of psychology moved as well. Prejudice and discrimination also shaped the field, as women, African Americans, Jews, and other groups were systematically denied education and employment in psychology.

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    11 5) Describe the obstacles faced by women, Jews, and African Americans in pursuing careers in psychology, especially during the first half of the twentieth century. Women were often denied admission to graduate school or conferment of degrees, and later had a difficult time finding jobs particularly if she was married. Eleanor Gibson, who later won a number of professional awards for her work in perceptual development and learning, was restricted from certain courses and areas on campus when she attended Yale. Such discrimination extended into 1960, when Sandra Scarr was told by the officer interviewing her for admission that most women don’t finish their degrees, and the ones that do amount to nothing anyway. Despite such obstacles, women did attain doctoral degrees in psychology. One champion for the education of women was James McKeen Cattell, who supported women frequently, urging scientific societies to include women as members. Largely because of his efforts, the APA was the first scientific society to admit women as members. Mary Whiton Calkins became the first female president of APA in 1905. Discrimination extended to Jewish psychologists as well. A study of discrimination of Jews at three universities — Harvard, Yale, and Princeton — found widespread practices that excluded Jews from admission. Those Jews who were admitted to colleges were ofte n separated and socially ostracized. Many colleges and universities, including two important to psychology (Johns Hopkins and Clark), had explicit policies to disallow Jewish students. In the face of such discrimination, some Jewish psychologists changed their names, which helped them secure jobs. Isadore Krechevsky became David Krech, David Bakanovsky became David Bakan, and Harry Israel (even though he was a protestant) changed his name to Harry Harlow. Some chose not to do this, for example Abraham Maslow refused to change his first name to something “less Jewish”. African Americans also faced an enormous amount of discrimination. When Black students were allowed to attend predominantly White universities, they were often not allowed to live on campus or mix socially with White students. Howard University in Washin gton D.C., a traditionally Black school, provided an education in Psychology for many Black students. 6) How does the process of writing history in any field necessarily restrict the number of people whose work can be singled out for attention? What gets highlighted in histories are a few individuals or events that have had an impact. By definition, this is a very small percentage of total individuals in a particular field. For example, many contemporary psychologists might be therapists, or might work for corporations. Unless they take the unusual step of publishing their work and ideas , their work will remain invisible to later psychology historians and won’t move beyond a small group of colleagues. 7) Describe the differences between personalistic and naturalistic conceptions of scientific history. Explain which approach is supported by cases of simultaneous discovery. The personalistic conception of scientific history states that science advances because of eminent individuals whose work creates an impact on the field. The naturalistic conception of scientific history is the viewpoint that the intellectual climate (the Zietgeist) fosters the creation of a particular idea. If one person does not discover the idea, another person is likely to. There are many instances of simultaneous and independent discoveries which lends support to this naturalistic conception. For e xample, Wallace developed the shell of evolutionary theory independent of Darwin and halfway around the world from him.

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    12 8) What is the Zeitgeist? How does the Zeitgeist affect the evolution of a science? Compare the growth of a science with the evolution of a living species. The Zeitgeist is the intellectual spirit of the times, and may be directed by some individuals. Oftentimes journal editors can act as gatekeepers of mainstream ideas and refuse to publish papers that are revolutionary. Psychologist John Garcia tried to publish a paper that challenged prevailing thought on stimul us - response theory. Although the research was solid, he was only able to publish in journals that were less known. The Zeitgeist can inhibit or promote methods of investigation or a discipline’s subject matter. Just like species adjust to the demands of the environment, a science will change depending on the Zeitgeist. 9) What is meant by the term “school of thought”? Has the science of psychology reached the paradigmatic stage of development? Why or why not? A school of thought is when a group of psychologists agree on a subject of study, on methods to use, and approaches to psychology. Thomas Kuhn wrote a book about how sciences develop over time called The Structure of Scientific Revolution . According to Kuhn, when a science has produced an accepted way of thinking and has matured, this way of thinking is called a paradigm. Paradigms are present in other science, for example for about 300 years the paradigm in physics was the Galilean - Newt onian framework. Paradigms can also change, in what Kuhn calls a scientific revolution, such as when Einstein’s model of physics became the paradigm. Because psychology remains divided, it is considered to be “preparadigmatic” — there is no prevailing school of thought. In fact, many contemporary psychologists criticize the field because of its fragmentation. There is no single view of psychology upon which a majority of psychologists agree. 10) Describe the cyclical process by which schools of thought begin, prosper, and then fail. In the history of psychology, the early schools of thought rose in opposition to the prevailing schools. Emerging schools would criticize the weaknesses of the previous schools and would address these weaknesses and attempt to redefine psychology, its met hods, and its topics of study. If enough people agreed with the new school, the old school was rejected. Some early schools of thought (structuralism, functionalism) no longer exist while other schools (behaviorism, psychoanalysis) still do. Key terms from chapter one • Behaviorism This school of thought is most associated with Watson and Skinner, which grew in opposition to those interested in conscious experience. Behaviorists were interested in studying only visible and therefore objective behavior. Studies were carefully con trolled and experimental as opposed to observational. • Cognitive psychology This is the most recent school to form ; its members also study conscious processes, particularly how the mind organizes thoughts. • Data Distorted in translations Translations can lead to a change in meaning of a concept. For example, Freud’s Einfall was translated into English as Free Association , which does not convey the idea of intrusion/invasion Freud intended.

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    13 • Functionalism The school of psychology that grew in opposition to structuralism, and like structuralism focused on conscious experiences as it relates to evolutionary adaptation. To functionalists, conscious experience should be studied as it happens, and the goal is to determine the utility of consciousness. • Gestalt psychology This school of thought began in Germany then came to the United States. With Gestalt, there is a focus on learning and perception in the context of the real world, and a focus on the wholeness of experience. • Historiography The methods and techniques used to study history, shaped by the fact that the data of history (fragments of what has been left behind and found) are quite different than the data of science (which allows replication). • Humanistic psychology This school of thought grew in opposition to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, and emphasized the wholeness of human nature and communicated the ability to overcome the past. • Lost/Suppressed data Some historical data has become lost over time (John Watson burning his papers), and some is purposefully suppressed (Freud’s biography downplaying his cocaine use). • Naturalistic theory This is the idea that science progresses not because of the work of extraordinary individuals, but rather because the time is ripe for the progression. The Zeitgeist, or intellectual climate, can be both accepting of new discoveries or can dampen a new discovery if it is too revolutionary. • Paradigm A paradigm is an accepted way of thinking in a particular discipline. In physics, for example, Einstein’s theories are broadly accepted. This is in contrast to psychology, where there is no broadly accepted psychological ideology. • Personalistic theory This is the idea that the skills and discoveries of specific individuals is what creates new information • Psychoanalysis Most associated with Freud, the focus of psychoanalysis is on the unconscious mind, with application to therapy. • School of thought When a group of psychologists agree on a subject of study, on methods to use, and approaches to psychology we can call this group a school of thought. • Self - serving data The idea that historical participants are motivated to shape how they are presented. For example, in his autobiography Skinner wrote that he did nothing but work in graduate school. At the same time, his graduate student colleagues remember his ping - pong skills. • Structuralism The school of psychology most associated with Titchener, whereby conscious experience is dissected using introspection. • Wilhelm Wundt Broadly known as the father of psychology, he defined what early psychology should be. • Zeitgeist The prevailing spirit of the times which influences the flow of new thought. Sometimes the Zeitgeist is ‘right’ for an idea and more than one individual has the idea at once, such as Darwin and Wallace developing the theory of evolution independently. A t other times the Zeitgeist is ‘wrong’ for an idea, such as when the Scottish scientist Robert Whytt suggested the idea of the conditioned response in 1763. Chapter 2

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    14 Philosophical Influences on Psychology In 1739, a new machine was showcased in France that captured the intellectual spirit, or Zeitgeist, of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries. The “defecating duck” was revolutionary in that it could quack, rise up on its legs, stretch out its neck, grab and swallow grain, and defecate just like a live duck. This invention is but one example of the new machines that were created for daily living and amusement. Such machines demonstrate mechanism , which is the idea that all natural processes are mechanically determined and can be understood by insight in chemistry and physics. Galileo and Newton started this doctrine with their conceptualization of the clockwork universe, which suggests that ever y physical effect is derived from a direct cause. Thus, if the cause could be fully understood, one would be able to make predictions. This intellectual atmosphere directly influenced the direction that psychology would eventually take by incorporating n ew technology into the methods and practice of science. With technology came increased precision. The scientific focus of the time was on observation, experimentation, and measurement. Another new invention of the seventeenth century was the mechanical clock, which was referred to as the “mother of machines.” Clocks brought about regularity, order, and predictability to all levels of social class and economic circumstance. They also us hered in the idea that precision and regularity can apply to the universe. It was believed that a clockwork universe, once set in motion by God, would function with order, regularity, and predictability. This set the tone for determinism, “the doctrine t hat acts are determined by past events,” as well as reductionism, attempting to reduce complex phenomena into simpler components. Machines built to imitate humans and other animals were called automata. The “defecating duck” was one such machine, and there were many more, such as a five and a half foot tall automaton that looked like a man and could actually play a flute. Philosoph ers began to incorporate the idea of mechanism and automata in their approach to understanding human nature. Many believed that mechanical laws govern human behavior, and the methods used to investigate the universe can be used to investigate human behavi or. The Zeitgeist of the mechanical man that pervaded science and philosophy was echoed in literature, with Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and L. Frank Baum’s The Wizard of Oz books. Charles Babbage exemplified the intellectual spirit of the time when he invented a ”difference calculator” that could imitate human mental actions like playing chess and conducting mathematical calculations. It is the direct forerunner of the modern compu ter and started the idea of “artificial intelligence”. One of Babbage’s supporters was Ada Lovelace, who described Babbage’s machine and how it worked. She identifies a fundamental difference between a thinking machine and a human, that is, a machine can not create something new, it can only do what it is programmed to do. Until the seventeenth century, when empiricism introduced new ideas to be formed through observation, prevailing thought was dictated by the dogmatism of the church. Although many scholars contributed to the introduction of psychology, Rene Descartes is c redited as having inaugurated modern psychology. Descartes’ approach to philosophy was to discard all that he knew and to build his knowledge from scratch. One of the issues he tackled was the mind - body problem: “the question of the distinction between m ental and physical qualities.” If the mind and body are different, then how do they interact with each other?

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    15 Descartes agreed with previous thought that mind and body are different. Unlike his predecessors who thought that mind controlled body, he believed in a mutual interaction, which means that the body also controls the mind to some extent. This placed more importance on the body’s functioning and allowed it to become subject of scientific inquiry. Being influenced by the automata and machines of his day, Descartes believed that the body could be explained mechanically. For example, he thought that some movements are not governed by the conscious experience but by stimulus outside of the body that e licits an involuntary response, which was later termed the reflex action theory . If the body can be described mechanically, then human behavior can be predictable; like with other machines, all movements (effects) happen because of causes and as long as o ne knows the causes one can predict the effects. Descartes was a dualist, believing that the mind and body were separate entities. This left him with the problem of how they interact. He looked to the brain, and saw that structures were duplicated in each hemisphere, except for the pineal body. For th is reason, he saw this structure as the vehicle through with the mind and body interact. Perhaps his biggest influence on psychology comes through Descartes’ doctrine of ideas . He believed the mind had two types of ideas; derived ideas, which are “produc ed by the direct application of an external stimulus” and innate ideas, which “arise from the mind or consciousness, independent of sensory experiences.” Auguste Comte was also influential to modern psychology when he founded positivism (an ideal system based exclusively on facts that are objectively observable and not debatable). Comte believed that while the physical sciences had already reached a positi vist stage, the social sciences would have to abandon metaphysical questions and explanations in order to do so. Similarly, the doctrine of materialism believes that “the facts of the universe could be described in physical terms and explained by the prop erties of matter and energy.” On the other hand, the doctrine of empiricism proposed that “all knowledge is derived from sensory experience.” Positivism, materialism, and empiricism all provided some of the philosophical basis for psychology, yet empirici sm played the major role. One of the main British empiricists was John Locke. His major influence on psychology is his book An Essay Concerning Human Understanding , which “marks the formal beginning of British empiricism.” He rejects Descartes’ innate ideas, and says that at birth the human mind is a tabula rasa , or a blank slate, and we acquire knowledge through our experiences. Locke defines two types of experiences: sensation (direct sensory input), and reflection (interpretations of sensations to form higher - level thinking). These experiences combine to form ideas. The first are simple ideas, which come from both sensation and reflection and can’t be broken down further. The second are complex ideas, which are combinations of simple ideas. This sets the ground for association , which psychologists later call learning. According to Locke, everything begins with the objects in space and our sensations of them. Such objects have two qualities: primary qualities, which exist in the object whether we perceive them or not (such as size and shape), and secondary qualities, which exist not in the object but in our perception of it (“such as color, odor, sound, and taste”). Locke, like Galileo before him, was making the distinction between what is subjective and what is objective and thus highlighting the importance of human perception. George Berkeley addressed the question of whether any real differences in stimulus existed. Berkeley believed that there were only secondary qualities, and all knowledge is a function of perception (this position later is called mentalism). With this con ception, we can never know the real world in an objective way. However, Berkeley believed that stability exists because God constantly perceives the world. For example, when a tree falls in the

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