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Solution Manual for Children: A Chronological Approach, Fifth Canadian Edition

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    SOLUTION MANUAL Sandy Schlieman Algonquin College CHILDREN A CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH Fifth Canadian Edition Robert V. Kail Purdue University Theresa Zolner King’s University

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    Chapter 1 Children - 1 Chapter 1 Child Development: Theories and Themes CHAPTER OVERVIEW MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films Module 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films INTERNET RESOURCES CASE STUDY HANDOUTS

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    Chapter 1 Children - 2 CHAPTER OVERVIEW I. MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT A. Canada’s Unique Contribution a. James Mark Baldwin b. Canadian Research c. Access to Historical Information http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/ B. The Biological Perspective a. Maturational Theory (Arnold Gesell) b. Ethological Theory (Konrad Lorenz) (1) Critical Period (2) Imprinting (3) Attachment C. The Psychodynamic Perspective a. Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud) b. Psychoanalysis c. Theory of Personality (1) Id (2) Ego (3) Superego d. Theory of Psychosexual Development e. Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson) (1) Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stages (Refer to Table 1-1) D. The Learning Perspective a. Classic Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) (1) Watson (Little Albert) b. Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner) (1) Reinforcement -- positive and negative reinforcement (2) Punishment c. Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura) (1) Imitation of Observational Learning (2) Self-Efficacy d. Imitation or Observational Learning e. Self-efficacy E. The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective a. Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) refer to Table 1-2 F. The Contextual Perspective a. Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development (Lev Vygotsky) b. Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner) refer to Figure 1-1

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    Chapter 1 Children - 3 G. Newer Approaches to Child Development a. Information-Processing Theory b. Evolutionary Theory c. Developmental Psychopathology H. The Big Picture: Comparing and Contrasting the Above Theories (Refer to Summary Table 1-3) II. MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH A. Early Development Is Related To Later Development But Not Perfectly ( continuity-versus-discontinuity issue ) B. Development Is Always Jointly Influenced By Heredity And Environment ( nature-nurture issue ) C. Children Help Determine Their Own Development ( active-passive child issue ) D. Development In Different Domains Is Connected (interconnected domains) MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Learning Objectives : LO1. Describe Canada’s unique contribution to developmental research. LO2. State the major tenets of the biological perspective. LO3. Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development. LO4. Identify the focus of learning theories. LO5. Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children's thinking. LO6. Name the main points of the contextual approach. LO7. Explain recent approaches to the study of child development. LO8. Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology. (See Handout 1-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.) MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

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    Chapter 1 Children - 4 Key Terms : theory natural selection maturational theory ethological theory critical period imprinting attachment psychoanalysis id ego superego libido body ego psychic skin neuropsychoanalysis psychodynamic theories psychosocial theory classical conditioning operant conditioning reinforcement punishment imitation observational (vicarious) learning social cognitive theory self-efficacy culture ecological theory mental hardware mental software evolutionary developmental psychology developmental psychopathology Classroom Activities : ♦ What Do You Know About Childhood? On the first day of class, instructors have experienced great success introducing students to the course material by creating a “true/false” quiz that emphasizes issues that will be addressed throughout the course. After covering the usual first-day tasks, ask the students to take out a blank piece of paper and record their answers to the following questions: TRUE or FALSE: 1. Breast-fed infants are psychologically “healthier” than formula-fed infants. (False) 2. Parents should avoid the use of spanking when disciplining their children. (True) 3. By law, children who are younger than 4 and who weigh less than 40 pounds must be secured in child safety restraints (i.e., a “car seat”) when riding in an automobile. (True) 4. Mothers have more natural or innate parenting skills than fathers. (False) 5. Children can develop secure attachment relationships to more than one adult. (True)

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    Chapter 1 Children - 5 6. Mothers who drink heavily while pregnant may cause permanent harm to their children. (True) 7. People never forget the trauma of their own births. (False) 8. A difficult infant will become a difficult child and a difficult adolescent. (False) 9. At birth, infants cannot see. (False) 10. Play contributes significantly to physical, intellectual, and social development of children. (True) Read through the items slowly to give the students a chance to record their answers. Then provide the correct answers during a second pass through the items. Inevitably, brief discussions will accompany the answers to certain items (e.g., breast-feeding, spanking, birth trauma, etc.), and these discussions serve the dual purpose of demonstrating the applicability of the information covered in the course and getting the students actively involved in class discussion. ♦ What Do You Want to Know about Childhood? Another first-day activity that gives the students a sense of “ownership” over some of the content of the course is described in detail by Douglas Hardwick (1996) of Illinois State University. On the first day of class, Hardwick asks his students to “think for a moment and then write out a question that you have about child development, but were afraid to ask” (p. 199). Students can do this individually or in small groups. These questions are then collected, sorted by topic category, and then read to the class on future class meetings to serve as organizational tools or discussion questions when relevant topics are covered. According to Hardwick (1996), typical topic categories of these questions include what he calls “basic concepts” (e.g., prenatal development, self-concept, sex roles, language and cognition, etc.), “the family” (e.g., working mothers, single parents, discipline, birth order, etc.), “special topics” (e.g., obesity, death, television, sports), and other issues. Most of these topics are typically addressed in child development courses, and additional students' questions – if asked frequently – may suggest new topics to include in your course. Source: Hardwick, D. A. (1996). On the value of asking students what they want to know about child development. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 6 ♦ Supporting Evidence for the Maturational Theory. According to maturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or plan within the body. Maturational theorists, like Arnold Gesell, argued that development is largely determined by biological forces; experience matters little. Consequently, Gesell argued that human development was quite predictable. (You may wish to mention that Gesell generated comprehensive norms of development that were utilized extensively by medical and child development professionals during the first half of the 20th century.) From their personal experiences with infants and young children, ask your class to cite evidence that supports Gesell’s contentions that development is predictable and biologically determined using the following question: What part of your upbringing would you attribute to the genes you inherited? ♦ From Ducklings to Infants. Ethological theory views development from an evolutionary perspective, meaning that many behaviours are viewed as adaptive (i.e., they have survival value). While human infants do not exhibit imprinting, ask your class to consider behaviours or abilities of infants that have survival value. Ask the class to explain how critical periods might exist for aspects of human development? ♦ Intrapsychic Conflict. Divide the class into three groups. Assign each group a component of personality, as described by Sigmund Freud. Inform the class that it will be their job to determine which component is being portrayed by each group. Present each group with a specific situation (e.g., deciding what to do tonight, seeing an attractive person, finding a lost wallet, etc.) Give each group a component id, ego, or superego. Ask each group to create a role-play that represents the component they have been assigned. Invite role-plays, reminding the players not to introduce the component. After a few minutes of role-playing, it should be obvious to the class the role that each group is portraying. ♦ Eriksonian Parenting Tips. Using Handout 1-2 (a reprint of the table in the text on “The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory”), ask the class to work in small groups in an effort to determine what parents should do to encourage a positive or healthy resolution to each of the first four psychosocial crises. Ask a recorder from each of the groups to list the parenting tips on the board. This discussion will provide ample opportunity to supplement the text’s coverage of Erikson’s theory and will facilitate comparisons to Freud’s psychosexual theory. ♦ Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is usually a difficult concept for students to grasp; they often believe that it is synonymous with punishment. To aid their comprehension of this construct, have your class complete Handout 1-3, either individually or in small groups.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 7  “Children See, Children Do.” How do children learn simply by watching others? Bandura’s social cognitive theory can be made clearer by asking your class about the cognitive processes involved in observational learning. Using the four steps involved in observational learning, ask students to identify something they had learned as a child through observational learning. Invite them to remember what they learned using the following four steps: (1) Attention : If one is to learn by watching another, one must pay attention to the actions of another. (2) Retention : Since learning usually involves the repetition of an action at a later point in time, the learner must remember what he/she attended to. (3) Reproduction : At some point, the action to which the learner attended and chose to retain must be reproduced or performed by the learner. (4) Motivation : Individuals will reproduce only those actions they are motivated to perform. Motivation can be influenced by the consequences that were observed following the actions performed by the model. Source: Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.  Your Developmental Ecology. Have your students complete Handout 1-4. This exercise will clarify the complicated constructs involved in Bronfenbrenner’s theory, effectively highlighting the interaction between the various systems that impact human development. This handout also reinforces the personal relevance of this developmental theory. This can be a take-home assignment for participation grades.  Who Said That? Either individually or in small groups, have your students complete Handout 1-5 A. This exercise will allow students to clarify the conceptual differences between the major theoretical perspectives reviewed. Who Do You Agree With? People usually have strong opinions about how children should be raised. The following story and questions will assist your students in comparing theories and deciding on which ones they agree with most. Using Hand-out 1- 5 B, ask students to read the story and choose an answer. Invite them to identify their answer using one of the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.  Advice Columns. What would Sigmund Freud or Albert Bandura suggest? This exercise (see Handout 1-6) will give your students a chance to speak for several notable developmental theorists. As a classroom exercise, Handout 1-6 should be completed in small groups. This handout can also be used as a homework assignment and as a take- home portion of an exam. Students respond well to it in any of these formats.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 8 Films: Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (Canadian Learning Company, 2003, 37 minutes). Bandura presents his social cognitive theory. It includes the classic Bobo doll experiment and his snake phobia work. B. F. Skinner: A Fresh Appraisal (Davidson Films, 1999, 41 minutes). This is a complete review and critique of the work of B. F. Skinner. This video puts to rest some myths, and credits Skinner with contributions not often attributed to him. B. F. Skinner and Behavior Change (Insight Media, 1975, 45 minutes). An overview of the ethics and applications of modern behaviourism. Child Development (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video provides an overview of the study of child development, including the ideas of early philosophers such as Locke and Rousseau and historically significant theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Bowlby, Watson, Gesell, and Piaget. The video also includes a review of research methodology utilized in the study of child development. Child Development: stepping stones (Coast Learning Systems, 2002, 30 minutes). This video discusses the context and influences in human development. It explores some of the major theories from the study of psychology such as psychoanalytical theory, learning theory, behaviourism, and cognitive theory. The final segment introduces the life span perspective. Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock… and Beyond (Learning Zone Express, 2009). Theorists presented include Sigmund Freud, Maria Montessori, Arnold Gesell, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Rudolf Dreikurs, Erik Erikson, Abraham Maslow, John Bowlby, B. F. Skinner, Benjamin Spock, Lawrence Kohlberg, T. Berry Brazelton, Diana Baumrind, and Howard Gardner. The Child’s Mind (Insight Media, 1978, 30 minutes). This is a presentation the information-processing approach to understanding cognitive development. Classical and Operant Conditioning (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 56 minutes). The principles of behaviourism are explained, as are its important applications in clinical therapy, education and child-rearing. Cognitive Development (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). This is an overview of Piaget’s theory. It also reviews general aspects of cognition and language development. Discovering Psychology, Part 8: Learning (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes). Classic footage of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner demonstrating the fundamentals of classical and operant conditioning are included in this video.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 9 Erik H. Erikson: A Life’s Work (Insight Media, 1991, 38 minutes). Erik Erikson discusses his stage theory of psychosocial development. Everybody Rides the Carousel (Pyramid, 1975, 73 minutes in 3 parts). A carousel and its riders are used as metaphors to describe Erikson’s eight stages. Freud: The Hidden Nature of Man (Learning Corporation of America, 1970,27 minutes). This video is an introduction to many basic Freudian concepts, including sexuality, consciousness, and a discussion of the id, ego, and the superego. Learning (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Includes an interview with B.F. Skinner and reviews some applications of classical and operant conditioning. The Learning Infant (Insight Media, 1988, 30 minutes). This includes a demonstration of classical and operant conditioning with infants. Jean Piaget (Insight Media, 1969, Part I: 40 minutes; Part II: 40 minutes). Part I: An interview with Jean Piaget highlights his stages of development and other developmental issues including motivation, learning, and perception. Part II: Piaget presents his views on Freud’s developmental concepts and his reactions to criticism and misapplication of his own theory. Piaget’s Developmental Theory: An Overview (Davidson Films, 1989, 30 minutes). David Elkind introduces Piaget’s theory and interviews children. The video includes clear demonstrations of egocentric thought and conservation of liquid. Piaget on Piaget (Yale University, 1978, 45 minutes). Piaget discusses his theory of cognitive development. Theories of Development (Insight Media, 1997, 29 minutes). This video provides an overview of the cognitive, psychosexual, psychosocial, behaviourist, social-learning, and sociocultural theories of child development. The work of Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Gesell, Skinner and Vygotsky are featured. Theories of Human Development (Insight Media, 2002, 30 minutes). This video highlights six major theories of human development: Freud’s psychodynamic theory, Erikson’s psychosocial theory, the integrated theory of Bowlby and Ainsworth, Bandura’s social learning theory, Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s cognitive mediation theory. Transitions throughout the Lifespan: The Developing Person. (Magic Lantern, 2003, 28 minutes). This is an introduction to the study of human development. The focus is on the

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    Chapter 1 Children - 10 impact of nature and nurture through the work of John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson. It also includes Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of development. Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction (Canadian Learning Company, 1994, 28 minutes). This is an in introduction to the life, vocabulary and concepts of Vygotsky, by using early childhood and primary classrooms.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 11 Learning Objectives: LO9. Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predicted from early life. LO10. Understand how heredity and environment influence development. LO11. Specify what role children have in their own development. LO12. State how development in different domains is connected. Classroom Activities: ♦ Nature-Nurture Demonstration. To clarify the complicated interaction of genetics and environment, David Miller (1996) of the University of Connecticut recommends the use of a cooking metaphor. With the use of pictures or actual ingredients, Miller demonstrates that a basic ingredient (flour is used to represent genetic inheritance), when combined with a few additional ingredients and exposed to various “treatments” (e.g., frying versus baking), interacts to produce very different outcomes (representing individual developmental differences). Miller demonstrates the following cases: Basic Ingredient Additional Ingredients Treatment Developmental Outcome FLOUR SALT + WATER FRYING FLOUR TORTILLA FLOUR SALT + WATER BAKING MATZO FLOUR SALT + WATER + YEAST BAKING BREAD FLOUR SALT + BUTTER + COCOA + SUGAR BAKING BROWNIE Miller’s (1996) demonstration concludes with a discussion of various aspects of the nature-nurture issue, including: (a) the concept of developmental constraints (e.g., the limitations of ingredients and treatments); (b) how genes do not code for specific developmental outcomes (e.g., flour alone does not produce a specific food item); (c) the inseparability of genetic and environmental contributions to development (e.g., What makes a brownie a brownie? The ingredients or the baking process?); and (d) the inability to identify specific, constituent elements of the developmental product (e.g., try as hard as she might, my daughter cannot extract the cocoa from the rest of the brownie). MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD - DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

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    Chapter 1 Children - 12 Source: Miller, D. B. (1996). The nature-nurture issue: Lessons from the Pillsbury doughboy. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.), Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.  Active-Passive Debate. Choose a specific issue (e.g., sex-role, hobbies, personality characteristics, toy choices, etc.) and have the class debate the role that children play in its development (active versus passive). Divide the class in half, or have students work in small groups, each assigned to either the active or passive perspective. To foster integrative thinking, ask the students to identify theorists who share their perspective. Films: Contexts of Development (RMI Media Productions, 1993, 30 minutes). This video highlights the interactive influences of biological, social, economic, and cultural factors on human development. Human Brain Development (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). The DVD demonstrates the interplay of genetic predispositions and experiences in the development of the brain after birth. Worlds of Childhood, Programs 5, 23, and 24 (Great Plains National Instructional Television Library, 1993, 30 minutes each). Program 5, Nature and Nurture Interwoven, includes a review of research on twin studies. Programs 23 and 24, Nature and Nurture of Development (Parts I and II), explore the roles of biology, history, economics, family, peers, school, community, and culture in child development.

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    Chapter 1 Children - 13 INTERNET RESOURCES • www.cpa.ca Canadian Psychological Association • www.apa.org • www.aps.org American Psychological Association and American Psychological Society addresses. • www.piaget.org • archivespiaget.ch These are the locations of the Jean Piaget Society and the Jean Piaget Archives. • psychclassics.yorku.ca This is an internet resource for historical information about psychology/theorists. • www.phac-aspc.gc.ca Public Health Agency of Canada Childhood and Adolescence • www.kidshealth.org Growth and Development and Health related topics

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    Chapter 1 Children - 14 CASE STUDY: The Science of Child Development Dungeon of Doom: Part I “He’s still playing Dungeon of Doom ? I’m getting worried about the amount of time Matthew spends in front of that video game, Yannick.” “I don’t think Matthew is going to be harmed by it, Shani. It’s just a game. He still plays with his kindergarten friends, and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.” “But I worry that he’ll start to become a bully – make that a ‘Dungeon Master.’ Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.” “That won’t be easy, Shani, but it’s probably a good idea. Besides, if Matthew spends less time playing Dungeon of Doom, I can spend more time playing my favourite video game, Carnival of Carnage. ” 1. How can Sigmund Freud's theory of personality be used to explain the appeal of video games like Dungeon of Doom or Carnival of Carnage? 2. What kinds of concerns might Erik Erikson have about 6-year-old Matthew's habitual video game playing? 3. What suggestions would B. F. Skinner have for changing Matthew’s behaviour? 4. Impose the contextual perspectives of Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner on the case described above.

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