Solution Manual for Children: A Chronological Approach, Fifth Canadian Edition

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SOLUTION MANUALSandy SchliemanAlgonquinCollegeCHILDRENA CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACHFifth Canadian EditionRobert V. KailPurdue UniversityTheresa ZolnerKing’s University

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Chapter 1Children-1Chapter 1Child Development: Theories and ThemesCHAPTER OVERVIEWMODULE SUPPLEMENTSModule 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENTLearning ObjectivesKey TermsClassroom ActivitiesFilmsModule 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCHLearning ObjectivesKey TermsClassroom ActivitiesFilmsINTERNET RESOURCESCASE STUDYHANDOUTS

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Chapter 1Children-2CHAPTER OVERVIEWI.MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENTA.Canada’s Unique Contributiona.James Mark Baldwinb.Canadian Researchc.Access to Historical Informationhttp://psychclassics.yorku.ca/B.The Biological Perspectivea.Maturational Theory (Arnold Gesell)b.Ethological Theory (Konrad Lorenz)(1)Critical Period(2)Imprinting(3)AttachmentC.The Psychodynamic Perspectivea.Psychodynamic Theory (Sigmund Freud)b.Psychoanalysisc.Theory of Personality(1)Id(2)Ego(3)Superegod.Theory of Psychosexual Developmente.Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson)(1)Comparison of Freudian and Eriksonian Stages (Refer to Table 1-1)D.The Learning Perspectivea.Classic Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)(1)Watson (Little Albert)b.Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)(1)Reinforcement -- positive and negative reinforcement(2)Punishmentc.Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura)(1)Imitation of Observational Learning(2)Self-Efficacyd.Imitation or Observational Learninge.Self-efficacyE.The Cognitive-Developmental Perspectivea.Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) refer to Table 1-2F.The Contextual Perspectivea.Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development (Lev Vygotsky)b.Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner) refer to Figure 1-1

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Chapter 1Children-3G.Newer Approaches to Child Developmenta.Information-Processing Theoryb.Evolutionary Theoryc.Developmental PsychopathologyH.The Big Picture: Comparing and Contrasting the Above Theories(Refer to Summary Table 1-3)II.MODULE 1.2: THEMES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT RESEARCHA.Early Development Is Related To Later Development But Not Perfectly(continuity-versus-discontinuity issue)B.Development Is Always Jointly Influenced By Heredity AndEnvironment(nature-nurture issue)C.Children Help Determine Their Own Development(active-passive child issue)D.Development In Different Domains Is Connected(interconnected domains)MODULE SUPPLEMENTSLearning Objectives:LO1.Describe Canada’s unique contribution to developmental research.LO2.State the major tenets of the biological perspective.LO3.Explain how psychodynamic theories account for development.LO4.Identify the focus of learning theories.LO5.Describe how cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children'sthinking.LO6.Name the main points of the contextual approach.LO7.Explain recent approaches to the study of child development.LO8.Identify where you can read more about the history of psychology.(See Handout 1-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)MODULE 1.1: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

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Chapter 1Children-4Key Terms:theorynatural selectionmaturational theoryethological theorycritical periodimprintingattachmentpsychoanalysisidegosuperegolibidobody egopsychic skinneuropsychoanalysispsychodynamic theoriespsychosocial theoryclassical conditioningoperant conditioningreinforcementpunishmentimitationobservational (vicarious) learningsocial cognitive theoryself-efficacycultureecological theorymental hardwaremental softwareevolutionary developmental psychologydevelopmental psychopathologyClassroom Activities:♦What Do You Know About Childhood?On the first day of class, instructors haveexperienced great success introducing students to the course material by creating a“true/false” quiz that emphasizes issues that will be addressed throughout the course.After covering the usual first-day tasks, ask the students to take out a blank piece ofpaper and record their answers to the following questions:TRUE or FALSE:1.Breast-fed infants are psychologically “healthier” than formula-fed infants.(False)2.Parents should avoid the use of spanking when disciplining their children.(True)3.By law, children who are younger than 4 and who weigh less than 40 pounds must besecured in child safety restraints (i.e., a “car seat”) when riding in an automobile.(True)4.Mothers have more natural or innate parenting skills than fathers.(False)5.Children can develop secure attachment relationships to more than one adult.(True)

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Chapter 1Children-56.Mothers who drink heavily while pregnant may cause permanent harm to theirchildren. (True)7.People never forget the trauma of their own births.(False)8.A difficult infant will become a difficult child and a difficult adolescent.(False)9.At birth, infants cannot see. (False)10.Play contributes significantly to physical, intellectual, and social development ofchildren. (True)Read through the items slowly to give the students a chance to record their answers.Then provide the correct answers during a second pass through the items. Inevitably,brief discussions will accompany the answers to certain items (e.g., breast-feeding,spanking, birth trauma, etc.), and these discussions serve the dual purpose ofdemonstrating the applicability of the information covered in the course and getting thestudents actively involved in class discussion.♦What Do You Want to Know about Childhood?Another first-day activity thatgives the students a sense of “ownership” over some of the content of the course isdescribed in detail by Douglas Hardwick (1996) of Illinois State University. On the firstday of class, Hardwick asks his students to “think for a moment and then write out aquestion that you have about child development, but were afraid to ask” (p. 199).Students can do this individually or in small groups. These questions are then collected,sorted by topic category, and then read to the class on future class meetings to serve asorganizational tools or discussion questions when relevant topics are covered.According to Hardwick (1996), typical topic categories of these questions include what hecalls “basic concepts” (e.g., prenatal development, self-concept, sex roles, language andcognition, etc.), “the family” (e.g., working mothers, single parents, discipline, birthorder, etc.), “special topics” (e.g., obesity, death, television, sports), and other issues.Most of these topics are typically addressed in child development courses, and additionalstudents' questions – if asked frequently – may suggest new topics to include in yourcourse.Source:Hardwick, D. A. (1996). On the value of asking students what they want to know about childdevelopment. In M. E. Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.),Handbook of demonstrations and activities in theteaching of psychology.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Chapter 1Children-6♦Supporting Evidence for the Maturational Theory.According tomaturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme orplan within the body. Maturational theorists, like Arnold Gesell, argued thatdevelopment is largely determined by biological forces; experience matters little.Consequently, Gesell argued that human development was quite predictable. (You maywish to mention that Gesell generated comprehensive norms of development that wereutilized extensively by medical and child development professionals during the first halfof the 20th century.) From their personal experiences with infants and young children,ask your class to cite evidence that supports Gesell’s contentions that development ispredictable and biologically determined using the following question: What part of yourupbringing would you attribute to the genes you inherited?♦From Ducklings to Infants.Ethological theory views development from anevolutionary perspective, meaning that many behaviours are viewed as adaptive (i.e.,they have survival value). While human infants do not exhibit imprinting, ask yourclass to consider behaviours or abilities of infants that have survival value. Ask theclass to explain how critical periods might exist for aspects of human development?♦Intrapsychic Conflict.Divide the class into three groups. Assign each group acomponent of personality, as described by Sigmund Freud. Inform the class that it willbe their job to determine which component is being portrayed by each group. Presenteach group with a specific situation (e.g., deciding what to do tonight, seeing anattractive person, finding a lost wallet, etc.) Give each group a component id, ego, orsuperego. Ask each group to create a role-play that represents the component they havebeen assigned. Invite role-plays, reminding the players not to introduce the component.After a few minutes of role-playing, it should be obvious to the class the role that eachgroup is portraying.♦Eriksonian Parenting Tips.Using Handout 1-2 (a reprint of the table in the texton “The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory”), ask the class towork in small groups in an effort to determine what parents should do to encourage apositive or healthy resolution to each of the first four psychosocial crises. Ask a recorderfrom each of the groups to list the parenting tips on the board. This discussion willprovide ample opportunity to supplement the text’s coverage of Erikson’s theory and willfacilitate comparisons to Freud’s psychosexual theory.♦Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement.Negative reinforcement isusually a difficult concept for students to grasp; they often believe that it is synonymouswith punishment. To aid their comprehension of this construct, have your classcomplete Handout 1-3, either individually or in small groups.

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Chapter 1Children-7“Children See, Children Do.”How do children learn simply by watchingothers? Bandura’s social cognitive theory can be made clearer by asking your classabout the cognitive processes involved in observational learning. Using the four stepsinvolved in observational learning, ask students to identify something they had learnedas a child through observational learning. Invite them to remember what they learnedusing the following four steps:(1)Attention: If one is to learn by watching another, one must pay attention to the actions ofanother.(2)Retention: Since learning usually involves the repetition of an action at a later point in time,the learner must remember what he/she attended to.(3)Reproduction: At some point, the action to which the learner attended and chose to retainmust be reproduced or performed by the learner.(4)Motivation: Individuals will reproduce only those actions they are motivated to perform.Motivation can be influenced by the consequences that were observed following the actionsperformed by the model.Source:Bandura, A. (1977).Social learning theory.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Your Developmental Ecology.Have your students complete Handout 1-4.This exercise will clarify the complicated constructs involved in Bronfenbrenner’s theory,effectively highlighting the interaction between the various systems that impact humandevelopment. This handout also reinforces the personal relevance of this developmentaltheory. This can be a take-home assignment for participation grades.Who Said That?Either individually or in small groups, have your studentscomplete Handout 1-5 A. This exercise will allow students to clarify the conceptualdifferences between the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.Who Do You Agree With?People usually have strong opinions about howchildren should be raised. The following story and questions will assist your students incomparing theories and deciding on which ones they agree with most. Using Hand-out 1-5 B, ask students to read the story and choose an answer. Invite them to identify theiranswer using one of the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.Advice Columns.What would Sigmund Freud or Albert Bandura suggest? Thisexercise (see Handout 1-6) will give your students a chance to speak for several notabledevelopmental theorists. As a classroom exercise, Handout 1-6 should be completed insmall groups. This handout can also be used as a homework assignment and as a take-home portion of an exam. Students respond well to it in any of these formats.

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Chapter 1Children-8Films:Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory(Canadian Learning Company, 2003, 37 minutes).Bandura presents his social cognitive theory. It includes the classic Bobo doll experiment andhis snake phobia work.B. F. Skinner: A Fresh Appraisal(Davidson Films, 1999, 41 minutes). This is a completereview and critique of the work of B. F. Skinner. This video puts to rest some myths, andcredits Skinner with contributions not often attributed to him.B.F. Skinner and Behavior Change(Insight Media, 1975, 45 minutes). An overview ofthe ethics and applications of modern behaviourism.Child Development(Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video provides an overviewof the study of child development, including the ideas of early philosophers such as Locke andRousseau and historically significant theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Bowlby, Watson, Gesell,and Piaget. The video also includes a review of research methodology utilized in the study ofchild development.Child Development: stepping stones(Coast Learning Systems, 2002, 30 minutes). Thisvideo discusses the context and influences in human development. It explores some of the majortheories from the study of psychology such as psychoanalytical theory, learning theory,behaviourism, and cognitive theory. The final segment introduces the life span perspective.Child Development Theorists: Freud to Erikson to Spock… and Beyond(Learning ZoneExpress, 2009).Theorists presented include Sigmund Freud, Maria Montessori, Arnold Gesell, LevVygotsky, Jean Piaget, Rudolf Dreikurs, Erik Erikson, Abraham Maslow, John Bowlby, B. F.Skinner, Benjamin Spock, Lawrence Kohlberg, T. Berry Brazelton, Diana Baumrind, and HowardGardner.The Child’s Mind(Insight Media, 1978, 30 minutes). This is a presentation theinformation-processing approach to understanding cognitive development.Classical and Operant Conditioning(Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 56minutes). The principles of behaviourism are explained, as are its important applications inclinical therapy, education and child-rearing.Cognitive Development(Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). This is an overview ofPiaget’s theory. It also reviews general aspects of cognition and language development.Discovering Psychology, Part 8: Learning(Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes).Classic footage of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner demonstrating the fundamentals of classicaland operant conditioning are included in this video.

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Chapter 1Children-9Erik H. Erikson: A Life’s Work(Insight Media, 1991, 38 minutes). Erik Eriksondiscusses his stage theory of psychosocial development.Everybody Rides the Carousel(Pyramid, 1975, 73 minutes in 3 parts). A carousel and itsriders are used as metaphors to describe Erikson’s eight stages.Freud: The Hidden Nature of Man(Learning Corporation of America, 1970,27 minutes).This video is an introduction to many basic Freudian concepts, including sexuality,consciousness, and a discussion of the id, ego, and the superego.Learning(Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Includes an interview with B.F. Skinnerand reviews some applications of classical and operant conditioning.The Learning Infant(Insight Media, 1988, 30 minutes). This includes a demonstrationof classical and operant conditioning with infants.Jean Piaget(Insight Media, 1969, Part I: 40 minutes; Part II: 40 minutes). Part I: Aninterview with Jean Piaget highlights his stages of development and other developmentalissues including motivation, learning, and perception. Part II: Piaget presents his views onFreud’s developmental concepts and his reactions to criticism and misapplication of his owntheory.Piaget’s Developmental Theory: An Overview(Davidson Films, 1989, 30 minutes). DavidElkind introduces Piaget’s theory and interviews children. The video includes cleardemonstrations of egocentric thought and conservation of liquid.Piaget on Piaget(Yale University, 1978, 45 minutes). Piaget discusses his theory ofcognitive development.Theories of Development(Insight Media, 1997, 29 minutes). This video provides anoverview of the cognitive, psychosexual, psychosocial, behaviourist, social-learning, andsociocultural theories of child development. The work of Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Gesell,Skinner and Vygotsky are featured.Theories of Human Development(Insight Media, 2002, 30 minutes). This videohighlights six major theories of human development: Freud’s psychodynamic theory, Erikson’spsychosocial theory, the integrated theory of Bowlby and Ainsworth, Bandura’s social learningtheory, Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s cognitive mediation theory.Transitions throughout the Lifespan: The Developing Person.(Magic Lantern, 2003, 28minutes). This is an introduction to the study of human development. The focus is on the

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Chapter 1Children-10impact of nature and nurture through the work of John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, JeanPiaget and Erik Erikson. It also includes Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model of development.Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction(Canadian Learning Company, 1994,28 minutes). This is an in introduction to the life, vocabulary and concepts of Vygotsky, byusing early childhood and primary classrooms.

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Chapter 1Children-11Learning Objectives:LO9.Demonstrate how well developmental outcomes can be predicted fromearly life.LO10.Understand how heredity and environment influence development.LO11.Specify what role children have in their own development.LO12.State how development in different domains is connected.Classroom Activities:♦Nature-Nurture Demonstration.To clarify the complicated interaction ofgenetics and environment, David Miller (1996) of the University of Connecticutrecommends the use of a cooking metaphor. With the use of pictures or actualingredients, Miller demonstrates that a basic ingredient (flour is used to representgenetic inheritance), when combined with a few additional ingredients and exposedto various “treatments” (e.g., frying versus baking), interacts to produce verydifferent outcomes (representing individual developmental differences). Millerdemonstrates the following cases:BasicIngredientAdditional IngredientsTreatmentDevelopmental OutcomeFLOURSALT + WATERFRYINGFLOUR TORTILLAFLOURSALT + WATERBAKINGMATZOFLOURSALT + WATER + YEASTBAKINGBREADFLOURSALT + BUTTER +COCOA + SUGARBAKINGBROWNIEMiller’s (1996) demonstration concludes with a discussion of various aspects of thenature-nurture issue, including:(a)the concept of developmental constraints (e.g., the limitations of ingredients andtreatments);(b)how genes do not code for specific developmental outcomes (e.g., flour alone does notproduce a specific food item);(c)the inseparability of genetic and environmental contributions to development (e.g.,What makes a brownie a brownie? The ingredients or the baking process?); and(d)the inability to identify specific, constituent elements of the developmental product(e.g., try as hard as she might, my daughter cannot extract the cocoa from the rest ofthe brownie).MODULE 1.2:THEMES IN CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

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Chapter 1Children-12Source:Miller, D. B. (1996). The nature-nurture issue: Lessons from the Pillsbury doughboy. In M. E.Ware and D. E. Johnson (Eds.),Handbook of demonstrations and activities in the teaching of psychology.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Active-Passive Debate.Choose a specific issue (e.g., sex-role, hobbies,personality characteristics, toy choices, etc.) and have the class debate the role thatchildren play in its development (active versus passive). Divide the class in half, or havestudents work in small groups, each assigned to either the active or passive perspective.To foster integrative thinking, ask the students to identify theorists who share theirperspective.Films:Contexts of Development(RMI Media Productions, 1993, 30 minutes). This videohighlights the interactive influences of biological, social, economic, and cultural factorson human development.Human Brain Development(Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). The DVDdemonstrates the interplay of genetic predispositions and experiences in thedevelopment of the brain after birth.Worlds of Childhood, Programs 5, 23, and 24(Great Plains National InstructionalTelevision Library, 1993, 30 minutes each). Program 5,Nature and Nurture Interwoven,includes a review of research on twin studies. Programs 23 and 24,Nature and Nurtureof Development (Parts I and II),explore the roles of biology, history, economics, family,peers, school, community, and culture in child development.

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Chapter 1Children-13INTERNET RESOURCES•www.cpa.caCanadian Psychological Association•www.apa.org•www.aps.orgAmerican Psychological Association and American Psychological Society addresses.•www.piaget.org•archivespiaget.chThese are the locations of the Jean Piaget Society and the Jean Piaget Archives.•psychclassics.yorku.caThis is an internet resource for historical information about psychology/theorists.•www.phac-aspc.gc.caPublic Health Agency of CanadaChildhood and Adolescence•www.kidshealth.orgGrowth and Development and Health related topics

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Chapter 1Children-14CASE STUDY: The Science of Child DevelopmentDungeon of Doom: Part I“He’s still playingDungeon of Doom? I’m getting worried about the amount oftime Matthew spends in front of that video game, Yannick.”“I don’t think Matthew is going to be harmed by it, Shani. It’s just a game. Hestill plays with his kindergarten friends, and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.”“But I worry that he’ll start to become a bully – make that a ‘Dungeon Master.’Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.”“That won’t be easy, Shani, but it’s probably a good idea. Besides, if Matthewspends less time playingDungeon of Doom,I can spend more time playingmyfavouritevideo game,Carnival of Carnage.”1.How can Sigmund Freud's theory of personality be used to explain the appeal ofvideo games likeDungeon of DoomorCarnival of Carnage?2.What kinds of concerns might Erik Erikson have about 6-year-old Matthew'shabitual video game playing?3.What suggestions would B. F. Skinner have for changing Matthew’s behaviour?4.Impose the contextual perspectives of Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner on the casedescribed above.

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