Lecture Notes For Biopsychology, 9th Edition

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INSTRUCTOR’SMANUALVincent MarkowskiState University of New York at GeneseoBIOPSYCHOLOGYNinth EditionJohn P. J. PinelUniversity of British ColumbiaCLASS NOTES

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11Biopsychology as a Neuroscience:What Is Biopsychology, Anyway?TABLE OF CONTENTSChapter-at-a-Glance2Teaching Objectives3Brief Chapter Outline4Teaching Outline6Lecture Launchers13Activities16Web Links17Author-run Blog18MyPsychLab19The Visual Brain20Accessing Instructor Resources21

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Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience2CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCEBrief OutlineInstructor’s ManualResourcesA Personal IntroductionCourse OrganizationFour Major Themes of This Text(pp.3–4)Lecture Launcher 1.11.1 What Is Biopsychology?(p. 4)Lecture Launcher 1.71.2 WhatIs the Relationship betweenBiopsychology and the OtherDisciplines of Neuroscience?(p. 4)Lecture Launcher 1.21.3 What Types of ResearchCharacterize the BiopsychologicalApproach?(pp. 4–8)Lecture Launchers1.3,1.81.4 What Are the Divisions ofBiopsychology?(pp. 8–11)1.5 Converging Operations: How DoBiopsychologists Work Together?(pp. 12–13)Lecture Launcher 1.41.6 Scientific Inference: HowDoBiopsychologists Study theUnobservable Workings of the Brain?(pp. 13–14)Lecture Launcher 1.5,Activity 1.11.6 Critical Thinking aboutBiopsychological Claims(pp. 14–17)Lecture Launcher 1.6< Return to Table of Contents

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Biopsychology, Ninth Edition3TEACHING OBJECTIVESAfter completion of this chapter, the student should be able to:1.Describe the research goals for the field of biopsychology and its position within the larger field ofneuroscience.2.Prepare to use basic research methods, terminology, and concepts (experimental design, independentvariable, etc.) and these terms in upcoming chapters.3.Appreciate the value of converging operations across the six divisions of biopsychology.4.Understand the value of research with animals and the ethical issues concerning their care.< Return to Table of Contents

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Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience4BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE1.A Personal Introductiona.Training and Teaching Experienceb.Research Experiencec.Teaching Assistantd.Availability of Instructor and Teaching Assistant2.Course Organizationa.Who Is the Course For?b.Text and Ancillary Materialsc.Lecture Formatd.Examination Formate.Major Assignments and Due Datesf.Special Learning or Examination Requirementsg.Missed Examinations/Assignments Policyh.Final GradesLecture Launcher 1.1:First Impressions of Biopsychology3.The Four Major Themes of This Booka.Thinking Creativelyb.Clinical Implicationsc.The Evolutionary Perspectived.Neuroplasticity4.What Is Biopsychology?a.Study of Biological Bases of Behaviorb.Characterized by an Eclectic ApproachLecture Launcher 1.2:Biopsychology Research—More than White Rats and Lab Coats5.What Is the Relation between Biopsychology and the Other Disciplines of Neuroscience?a.What Is Neuroscience?b.Biopsychology as a Part of NeuroscienceLecture Launcher 1.3:Ethical Issues in Animal and Human Research6.What Types of Research Characterize the Biopsychological Approach?a.Human and Nonhuman Subjectsb.Experiments and Nonexperimentsc.Pure and Applied Research7.What Are the Divisions of Biopsychology?a.Physiological Psychologyb.Psychopharmacologyc.Neuropsychologyd.Cognitive Neurosciencee.Psychophysiology

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Biopsychology, Ninth Edition5f.Comparative PsychologyLecture Launcher 1.4:Neuropsychology’s Case Studies versus Physiological Psychology’s Experiments8.Converging Operations: How Do Biopsychologists Work Together?Lecture Launcher 1.5:Studying Brain and Behavior from All Sides9.Scientific Inference: How Do Biopsychologists Study the Unobservable Workings of the Brain?Activity 1.1:Making Sense of Eye Movements10.Critical Thinking About Biopsychological Claimsa.Taming a Charging Bull with Caudate Stimulationb.Prefrontal LobotomyLecture Launcher 1.6:Chimpanzees and Mental Illness11.End-of-Chapter Discussiona.What Was Wrong with Delgado’s Claims?b.What Was Wrong with Moniz’s Claims?< Return to Table of Contents

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Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience6TEACHING OUTLINE1.A Personal IntroductionLend the course a personal perspectivea.Training and Teaching ExperienceHow I first became interested in biopsychology (personal anecdotes)Undergraduate trainingGraduate trainingPostgraduate experienceOther courses that I am currently teachingb.Research ExperienceThesis researchPast researchCurrent research interests (encourage students to speak with me about my work)The following information should also be included in the syllabus:c.Teaching Assistant (if possible, have the teaching assistant speak about himself/herself)Training, current research interestsd.Availability of Instructor and Teaching AssistantOffice hours and locationPhone numbers/E-mail addresses/Web pages2.Course Organizationa.Who Is the Course For?Describe any prerequisites for the course (e.g., Introductory Psychology, Introductory Biology)b.Text and Ancillary Materials(bring these to class so the students can see them)Biopsychology, Ninth Edition, by John P.J. PinelAny other assigned reading materialsNote use of other pedagogical tools, such as a Blackboard site for the coursec.Lecture FormatRelation of lectures to textNote if questions or comments are encouraged at any point in your lecturesIf lecture notes are provided, note how they can be accessedd.Examination FormatExamination datesGeneral format of exams (multiple choice, short answer, essay, and/or figure identification)Nature of final exam (Is it comprehensive or for the last block of material?)What to do if you think your examination has been graded incorrectly

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Biopsychology, Ninth Edition7e.Major Assignments and Due DatesWhat are they? When are they due?f.Special Learning or Examination RequirementsProvide information about your institution’s learning resource center.g.Missed Examinations/Assignments Policyh.Final GradesTell students how the final grades will be computed.3.The Four Major Themes of This Booka.Thinking Creatively•Novel approaches to research have led to progress in biopsychologyb.Clinical Implications•Much has been learned through the investigation of brain damage and behavioral changec.The Evolutionary Perspective•Much has been learned by comparing and contrasting different speciesd.Neuroplasticity•The brain changes continuously throughout the life span4.What Is Biopsychology?a.Study of Biological Bases of BehaviorBrainandbehaviorare two of the most interesting subjects in science;biopsychologyfocuses on brain/behavior relationships (refer to Figure 1.1, showing a human brain, fromBiopsychology, Ninth Edition).Biopsychology emerged as a distinct area in psychology at the end of the nineteenth century;Hebb’sThe Organization of Behavior(1949) was a key factor in its development into amajor neuroscientific discipline.Biopsychologists study how the brain and the rest of the nervous system determine what weperceive, feel, think, say, and do.This may be theultimate challenge for the human brain: Does our brain have the capacityto understand something as complex as itself?b.Characterized by an Eclectic ApproachBiopsychologists use aneclecticcombination of theories and research from many differentareas (e.g., psychology, biology, physiology, pharmacology, and anatomy) to better describe,understand, and predict behavior.This diverse approach is captured by the four main themes ofBiopsychology:creativethoughtabout biopsychology; theclinical implicationsof biopsychology;evolutionandbiopsychology; andneuroplasticityand biopsychology.5.What Is the Relation between Biopsychology and the Other Disciplines of Neuroscience?a.What Is Neuroscience?

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Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience8Neuroscienceis the scientific study of the nervous system; neuroscience includes manydifferentapproaches,includingneuroanatomy,neurophysiology,neurochemistry,neuroendocrinology,neuropharmacology, andneuropathology.b.Biopsychology as a Part of NeuroscienceBiopsychologyis a discipline of neuroscience that integrates these various approaches.Biopsychologists try to discover how the various phenomena studied by neurophysiologists,neuropharmacologists, neuroanatomists, and other neuroscientists relate to one another toproduce psychological phenomena such as learning, memory, motivation, and perception.Thus, biopsychology can be viewed asbridgebetween psychology and neuroscience.Thefirstpartofthecoursewillexaminethefundamentalsofneuroanatomy,neurophysiology, neuropharmacology, genetics, and evolution; the rest of the course willfocus on how these biological fundamentals are applied to the study of biopsychologicalphenomena.6.What Types of Research Characterize the Biopsychological Approach?Biopsychologists use a variety of research approaches in their studies; to understand whatbiopsychology is, you must understand what biopsychologists do.This diversity can be illustrated by discussing three dimensions along which biopsychologicalresearch varies:–human vs. nonhuman subjects–experimental vs. nonexperimental studies–applied vs. pure researcha.Human and Nonhuman SubjectsAdvantages of human subjects:They can follow directions.They can report subjective experiences.They are often less expensive.They have a human brain.Advantages of nonhuman subjects:They have simpler nervous systems.Studying various species makes it possible to use thecomparative approach.There are fewer ethical constraints (although the ethics of both human and animal research iscarefully scrutinized by independent committees).b.Experiments and NonexperimentsBiopsychology research can involve experimental and nonexperimental studies.ExperimentsUsed by scientists to determinecause-and-effect relationships.Usually adifferent groupof subjects is tested under eachtreatment conditionof anexperiment; this is abetween-subjects design.Sometimes thesame groupof subjects can be tested undermultiple treatment conditions;this is awithin-subjects design.Independent variablesare set or manipulated by the experimenter; these manipulationsproduce the different treatment conditions in an experiment.Dependent variablesreflect the subject’s behavior; this is what the experimenter measures.

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Biopsychology, Ninth Edition9The experimenter tries to conduct the experiment so that the independent variable is the onlything that varies between each treatment condition; the experimenter measures the effect ofthe independent variable on the dependent variable.In a well-designed experiment, the experimenter can conclude that any differences in thedependent variable between the various treatment conditions werecausedby the independentvariable (it’s the only possibility).Although the principle of good experimentation is conceptually simple, it is often difficult inpractice to make sure that there is only one difference among conditions; unintendeddifferencesbetweenconditionsthatcaninfluencethedependentvariablearecalledconfounded variables.The presence of confounded variables makes experiments difficult to interpret because it isimpossible to tell how much of the effect on the dependent variable was caused by theindependent variable and how much was caused by the confounded variable.An example of a well-designed experiment is the experiment of Lester and Gorzalka (1988)on theCoolidge effectin female hamsters (refer to Figure 1.3 fromBiopsychology).Nonexperimental StudiesSometimes it is impossible to conduct controlled experiments (e.g., if human subjects areinvolved, it may be impossible for ethical or technical reasons to assign them to particularconditions and to administer the conditions).In aquasiexperimental design,researchers examine subjects in real-world situations whohave self-selected into specific conditions (e.g., excessive alcohol intake); in a sense, thesesubjects have assigned themselves to treatment conditions.The major shortcoming of a quasiexperimental study is that although researchers can examinerelations between the variables of interest (e.g.,alcohol consumption’s relation to braindamage), a quasiexperimental study cannot control for potential confounding variables.Therefore, it does not allow a researcher to establish direct cause-and-effect relationships.Example:Researchers cannot randomly assign humans to control and alcohol groups,and then expose one group to 10 years of chronic alcohol exposure to see ifalcohol causes brain damage. Instead, they must compare the brains ofalcoholics and non-alcoholics found in the real world.Key Problem:Because subjects in the real world do not assign themselves to groupsrandomly, there are many other differences between the groups that couldcontribute todifferencesinthedependentmeasures.For example, theobservation that alcoholics have far more brain damage than non-alcoholicsdoesnotmean that alcohol directly causes this difference, because alcoholicsdifferfromnon-alcoholicsinmanywaysunrelatedtotheiralcoholconsumption (e.g., education, accidental head injury, diet, other drug use).Another type of nonexperimental design is called acase study.Case studies are scientific studies that focus on asingle subject; for example, you will learnlater in the course about how the in-depth study of one amnesic subject (H. M.) hascontributed much to our understanding of the neural basis of memory.The main problem with case studies is theirgeneralizability, or the extent to which theirresults tell us something about the general population.c.Pure and Applied ResearchPure and applied research are defined by the motivation of the researcher.

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Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience10Pure researchis motivated primarily by the curiosity of the researcher to find out how thingswork; pure research focuses on establishing building blocks or basic concepts that mayprovide information salient to many problems.Applied researchis motivated by an attempt to directly use the building blocks of basicresearch to answer specific questions; human and animal problems are directly addressed.7.What Are the Divisions of Biopsychology?a.Physiological PsychologyIt focuses ondirect manipulationof the nervous system in controlled lab settings (e.g.,lesions, invasive recording).The subjects are usually laboratory animals.There is a strong focus onpure research.b.PsychopharmacologySimilartophysiologicalpsychology,exceptthatthenervoussystemismanipulatedpharmacologicallyFocuses on drug effects on behavior and how these changes are mediated by changes inneural activityMany psychopharmacologists favorpure researchand use drugs to reveal the nature ofbrain-behavior interactions, while others concentrate onapplied questions(e.g., drug abuse,therapeutic drugs)c.NeuropsychologyFocuses on the behavioral effects of brain damage inhumans, typicallycortical damageCannot be studied in humans by experimentation; research focuses oncase studiesandquasiexperimental studiesMost applied of the six divisions of biopsychology; neuropsychological tests of brain-damaged patients facilitate diagnosis, treatment, and lifestyle counseling (e.g., the case of Mr.R. described in the text)d.PsychophysiologyIt focuses on the relationship between physiological and psychological processes in humansubjects.Because human subjects are used, all brain recordings arenoninvasive(i.e., from the surfaceof the head).The usual measure of brain activity is thescalp electroencephalogram(EEG).Muscle tension, eye movement, heart rate, pupil dilation, and electrical conductance of theskin are other common psychophysiological measures.Example:Eyetrackingdeficitsinschizophrenics;referstudentstoFigure1.4fromBiopsychologye.Cognitive NeuroscienceNewest division of biopsychologyFocuses on theneural bases of cognitive processeslike learning/memory, attention, andperceptual processesOften employs human subjects—key methods arenoninvasive,functional brain imagingtechniques(refer students to Figure 1.5 fromBiopsychology)

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Biopsychology, Ninth Edition11Often involves collaborations between researchers with widely different backgrounds (e.g.,biopsychology, cognitive psychology, computer science)f.Comparative PsychologyFocuses on the biology of behaviorFeaturescomparativeandfunctionalapproachesFeatures laboratory research, as well as studies of animals in their natural environments(ethology)Includesdisciplinesofevolutionarypsychology(understandingbehaviorthroughitsevolutionary origins) andbehavioral genetics(understanding the genetic influences onbehavior)8.Converging Operations: How Do Biopsychologists Work Together?Each of the six approaches to biopsychological research is not without its weaknesses; thus,biopsychological issues are rarely resolved by a single experiment or study, or by any singleapproach.Progressisgreatestwhenseveraldifferentapproaches,eachcompensatingfortheshortcomings of the others, are used to solve the same problems; this is calledconvergingoperations.9.Scientific Inference: How Do Biopsychologists Study the Unobservable Workings of the Brain?Science is a method of answering questions by direct observation; it is anempirical method.However, brain activity is not directly observable (e.g., one cannot see a neuron firing orneurochemicals being released from neurons).This situation is no different than other sciences (e.g., physicists cannot see gravity, chemistscannot see evaporation); the effects of the processes are observable, but not the processesthemselves.Question:How do scientists study the unobservable using a method (i.e., the scientificmethod) that is fundamentally observational?Answer:Byscientific inference; scientists observe the consequences of unobservableprocesses and from these they infer the nature of unobservable processes.10.Critical Thinking about Biopsychological ClaimsYou might think it odd to begin a course on biopsychology by considering two bad examples of itsscience. This is done for two reasons:because disciplines learn from their mistakes; understanding biopsychology’s previous errorshelp biopsychologists to avoid these mistakes in their own work; andbecause it will make you a better consumer of scientific research—it will help you developcritical thinking about biopsychological research.a.Taming a Charging Bull with Caudate StimulationThe biopsychologist Jose Delgado implanted anelectrodeinto thecaudate nucleusof a bull.Each time the bull charged, Delgado used his hand-held transmitter to deliver an electricalstimulation to the caudate nucleus of the bull via the implanted electrode.This stopped the charge and after a few attempts, the bull stood tamely as Delgado strodeabout the ring.

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Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience12Delgado and the popular press declared this a major discovery, the discovery of the caudatetamingcenter.Itwasevensuggestedthatcaudatestimulationmightcurehumanpsychopaths.b.Prefrontal Lobotomy(use Figures 1.8, 1.9, and 1.10 fromBiopsychology)In 1949, Dr. Egas Moniz received a Nobel Prize for developing a novel treatment for mentalillness:prefrontal lobotomy, a procedure that separates the prefrontal lobes from the rest ofthe brain.Moniz based his technique on a report that achimpanzee(Becky) was easier to handle afterpart of her prefrontal lobes had been destroyed as part of an experiment.Various forms of the operation were devised, such as thetransorbital lobotomyprocedure,which was performed by inserting an ice pick-like device through the eye sockets, often in adoctor’s office.Following the initial reports by Moniz of the operation’s benefits, it was performed onmentally-ill patients all over the world (over 40,000 in the United States alone).Note the case of Howard Dully, the boy who was lobotomized at the insistence of hisstepmother.11.End-of-Chapter DiscussionGuide the discussion to the following points and issues:a.What Was Wrong with Delgado’sClaims?There are many ways that stimulation might stop a charging bull other than by taming it (e.g.,the stimulation might have been painful, blinded the bull, made it sick, or made movementdifficult).When there is more than one reasonable interpretation of a behavior, the general rule is tofavor the simplest one; this rule is calledMorgan’s Canon.Infact,analysesof the filmedrecordofthiseventstrongly supporta moresimpleinterpretation: The left and right caudate are motor structures, and stimulating one side oftencauses an animal to walk in circles.This appears to be what happened in Delgado’s case; the bull was confused and incapable ofcharging, but not tamed.b.What Was Wrong with Moniz’sClaims?The surgery was based on the study of only one subject (Becky), and a nonhuman subject atthat!It is difficult to see how one could conclude that an operation that would eliminate theadaptive defensive reactions of a chimpanzee to an experimenter would help the mentally ill.Moniz and others who prescribed prefrontal lobotomy were not in a position to be objectivein its evaluation, nor were they trained to perform such evaluations. Early reports of thebenefitsofprefrontallobotomywerebasedonpoorlycontrolledstudiesfocusedonmanageabilityand published by Moniz himself.After many thousands of people had been lobotomized, controlled studies by objectiveresearchersrevealedterriblesideeffects(e.g.,“vegetable-likebehavior,”urinaryincontinence, epilepsy).< Return to Table of Contents

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Biopsychology, Ninth Edition13LECTURE LAUNCHERSLecture Launcher 1.1: First Impressions of BiopsychologyBased on their reading of Chapter 1, and on preconceptions that they may have from other psychologyclasses, have your students discuss whatTHEYthink biopsychology is—where it fits into psychologyand where it fits into science. For background material to help you with this discussion, see the WebsitefortheInternationalSocietyfortheHistoryoftheNeurosciencesathttp://www.bri.ucla.edu/nha/ishn/.Lecture Launcher 1.2:Biopsychology Research—More Than White Rats and Lab CoatsBased upon lectures to this point, talk about another area of biopsychological inquiry in whichexperiments, quasiexperimental studies, and case studies complement one another to make valuablecontributions to our understanding of brain/behavior relations (e.g., ask students to split into groups ofthree to five students to discuss how these three methods for studying brain/behavior relations could beused to study theneural bases of the behavioral changes that emerged following Phineas Gage’saccident).Lecture Launcher 1.3: Ethical Issues in Animal and Human ResearchBiopsychology uses both human and nonhuman subjects, and there are different sorts of ethical issuesassociated with the use of each. Discuss the procedure of applying for ethics approval in your universityor college. What are the factors that the ethics committees consider when determining whether or not toapprove a particular experiment? Also talk about what checks are in place in your country, state, orprovince to protect human and animal subjects.Web sites for responsible use of nonhuman animal research:www.understandinganimalresearch.org.ukwww.apa.org/science/leadership/care/guidelines.aspxwww.animalresearchforlife.euwww.the-aps.org/pa/policy/animals/intro.htmWeb sites against the use of nonhuman animal research:www.uncaged.co.ukwww.navs.orgwww.stopanimaltests.comLecture Launcher1.4: Neuropsychology’s Case Studies versus PhysiologicalPsychology’s ExperimentsNeuropsychologists and physiological psychologists both study the effects of brain damage on theirsubjects. However, they use dramatically different methodologies: Neuropsychologists typically use casestudies of human subjects, whereas physiological psychologists use experimental studies of nonhumansubjects. Given that neuropsychology can collect data directly from human subjects, why is it necessaryto perform experiments on nonhuman subjects?

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Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience14Lecture Launcher 1.5: Studying the Brain and Behavior from All SidesConsider the relative strengths and weakness ofphysiological psychologyandneuropsychology.Neuropsychology’s strength is that it deals with humans, but this is also its weakness because it precludesexperimentation. In contrast, physiological psychology can bring the power of the experimental methodand invasive neuroscientific techniques to bear on the question, but it is limited to the study of laboratoryanimals.Because the two approaches complement one another, together they can provide evidence for points ofview that neither can defend individually. Read about the case of Jimmie G. in Section 1.5 to see thepower of this approach in action.Lecture Launcher 1.6: Chimpanzees and Mental IllnessIn the analysis of Case 2 (Beck, Moniz, and Prefrontal Lobotomy), it was pointed out that a treatment formental illness was developed from the results of a single case study in a nonhuman animal. Moniz basinghis conclusions on a single case study was problematic in itself, but what about the fact that the removalof an adaptive behavior in a nonhuman animal was taken as evidence for the viability of a treatment for aform of mental illness? To what degree are studies of nonhuman animals currently used as part of theprocess for developing treatments for mental illness? If they are similar, then how are the interpretationsof the data obtained from these nonhuman animals different from that of Moniz?Lecture Launcher 1.7: The History of the BrainUse the PBS Web site on the History of Research on the Brain to find events and illustrations for use in aclassroom presentation. Images can often be copied from a Web site and inserted into a PowerPointPresentation for in class use. (Make sure you keep a record of where the image came from.) This is notonly good for legal defense of fair use, but it may allow you to find something again when you need it.Web LinkWeb Link 1.1 History of the BrainLecture Launcher 1.8: Research with Animals in Psychology“Psychologists undertake research with animals ‘...with a clear scientific purpose.’...There should be areasonable expectation that the research will a) increase knowledge of the processes underlying theevolution, development, maintenance, alteration, control, or biological significance of behavior, b)increase understanding of the species under study, or c) provide results that benefit the health or welfareof humans or other animals.” (APA Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Animals,Section VI.A.)Web LinksWeb Link 1.4 Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of ConductWeb Link 1.5 Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of AnimalsWeb Link 1.6 Research with Animals in PsychologyWeb Link 1.7 PETA: People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals

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