Lecture Notes for The Writer's Handbook, 6th Edition

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Instructor’s Resource ManualandAnswer KeyforThe Writer’s HandbookSixth EditionKrista HiserKapi‘olani Community College

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vCONTENTSPrefacexIntroducingTheWriter’sHandbooktoYour ClassxiiSampleSyllabixiiSamplesyllabusforuseincompositioncoursewithrhetoricalfocusxiiSamplesyllabusforuseinwritingcoursewithresearchfocusxiiSamplesyllabusforuseinwriting-intensivecommunicationscourseforbusinessmajorsxivPart1:Planning,Drafting,andRevisingChapter1ThinkasaWriter15Chapter 2PlanandDraft18Chapter 3ComposeParagraphs22Chapter 4Rewrite,Edit,andProofread24Part2:Analyzing,Reflecting,Informing,ArguingChapter 5ReadwithaCriticalEye28Chapter 6View with a Critical Eye30Chapter 7Write an Analysis32Chapter 8WriteanInformativeEssay35Chapter 9WriteaPositionArgument38Chapter 10WriteaProposalArgument41Part3:WritingintheDisciplinesChapter 11WriteAboutLiteratureandtheHumanities43Chapter 12WriteintheSciencesandSocialSciences46Chapter 13ComposefortheWorkplace48Part4:MultimediaandOnlineComposingChapter 14CommunicateinMultimedia50Chapter 15DesignPresentations54Chapter 16ComposeinOnlineGenres56Part5:PlanningResearchandFindingSourcesChapter17PlanYourResearch58

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viChapter 18FindSources61Chapter 19EvaluateSources64Chapter 20PlanFieldResearch66Part6:IncorporatingandDocumentingSourcesChapter21UseSourcesEffectivelyandAvoidPlagiarism69Chapter 22WriteandRevisetheResearchProject72Chapter 23MLADocumentation74Chapter 24APADocumentation76Chapter 25CMSDocumentation78Chapter 26CSEDocumentation79Part7:EffectiveStyleandLanguageChapter 27WritewithPower80Chapter 28WriteConcisely82Chapter 29WritewithEmphasis84Chapter 30FindtheRightWords86Chapter 31WritetoBeInclusive88Part8:UnderstandingGrammarChapter 32GrammarBasics90Chapter 33Fragments,Run-ons,andCommaSplices92Chapter 34Subject-VerbAgreement94Chapter 35Verbs95Chapter 36Pronouns97Chapter 37Modifiers98Part9:UnderstandingPunctuationandMechanicsChapter 38Commas100Chapter 39SemicolonsandColons102Chapter 40Hyphens103Chapter 41DashesandParentheses105Chapter 42Apostrophes106Chapter 43QuotationMarks107Chapter 44OtherPunctuationMarks108Chapter 45WritewithAccurateSpelling109Chapter 46CapitalizationandItalics111Chapter 47Abbreviations,Acronyms,andNumbers112Part10:IfEnglishIsNotYourFirstLanguageChapter 48WritinginaSecond(or Third, or Fourth)Language113Chapter 49Nouns,Articles,andPrepositions115Chapter 50Verbs117Chapter 51EnglishSentenceStructure118Answer Key120

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viiPART 8: Understanding GrammarChapter 32GrammarBasics120Exercise32.1, SentenceBasics120Exercise32.2, WordClasses:Pronouns120Exercise32.3,WordClasses:AdjectivesandAdverbs120Exercise32.4, WordClasses:PrepositionalPhrases121Exercise32.5, WordClasses121Exercise32.6, Clauses:MainClausePatterns121Exercise32.7, SentenceTypes122Chapter33Fragments,Run-ons,andCommaSplices123Exercise33.1 Fragments123Exercise33.2, Fragments123Exercise33.3, Run-onSentences123Exercise33.4,CommaSplices123Chapter 34Subject-VerbAgreement124Exercise34.1, SingularandPluralSubjects124Exercise34.2, IndefinitePronouns asSubjects124Exercise34.3, CollectiveNouns asSubjects124Chapter 35Verbs125Exercise35.1, BasicVerbForms125Exercise35.2,IrregularVerbs125Exercise35.3, TransitiveandIntransitive125Exercise35.4, ShiftsinTense125Exercise35.5, ShiftsinMood126Chapter 36Pronouns126Exercise36.1, Pronoun Case126Exercise36.2,Pronoun Case:Who, Whom, Whoever, Whomever126Exercise36.3, Pronoun Uses126Exercise36.4, Pronoun Agreement127Exercise36.5, Pronouns127Exercise36.6, ProblemswithPronouns andGender127Chapter 37Modifiers127Exercise37.1, ChooseTheCorrectModifier127Exercise37.2, DoubleNegatives128Exercise 37.3, Choose The Correct Modifier: Adjectivesand Adverbs128Exercise37.4, PlaceAdverbsCarefully128Exercise37.5, ReviseDanglingModifiers129PART9:UnderstandingPunctuationandMechanicsChapter 38Commas129Exercise38.1, CommaswithIntroductoryElements129Exercise38.2, CommaswithCompoundClauses129Exercise38.3, CommaswithNonrestrictiveModifiers129Exercise38.4, CommaswithItemsinaSeries130

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viiiExercise38.5, CommaswithCoordinateAdjectives130Exercise38.6, CommaswithQuotations130Exercise 38.7, Commas with Dates, Numbers, Titles,and Addresses131Exercise38.8, CommastoAvoidConfusion131Chapter 39SemicolonsandColons132Exercise39.1, Semicolons132Exercise39.2, Colons132Chapter 40Hyphens132Exercise40.1, Hyphens132Chapter 41DashesandParentheses133Exercise41.1, DashesandParenthesesversusCommas133Exercise41.2, DashesandParenthesestoSetOff Information133Exercise41.3, OtherPunctuationwithParentheses133Chapter 42Exercise42.1, Possessives134Exercise 42.2, Plurals of Letters, Symbols, and Words Referredto as Words134Chapter 43QuotationMarks134Exercise43.1, DirectQuotations134Exercise43.2, OtherPunctuationwithQuotationMarks135Chapter 44OtherPunctuationMarks135Exercise44.1, Periods135Exercise44.2, QuestionMarks135Exercise44.3, CorrectingPunctuationMistakes136Chapter 45WritewithAccurateSpelling136Exercise45.1, Know theLimitationsof SpellingCheckers136Exercise45.2, DistinguishHomonyms136Chapter 46CapitalizationandItalics136Exercise46.1, Capitalization136Exercise46.2, Italics137Chapter 47Abbreviations,Acronyms,andNumbers137Exercise47.1, Abbreviations137Exercise47.2, Numbers137PART10:IfEnglishIsNotYourFirstLanguageChapter 48WritingIn A SecondLanguage138Exercise48.1 UnderstandEnglishIdioms138Chapter 49Nouns, Articles,andPrepositions138Exercise49.1, Kindsof Nouns138Exercise49.2, CountandNoncountNouns138Exercise49.3, SingularandPluralForms139Exercise49.4, Articles139Exercise49.5, Prepositions139Exercise49.6, Prepositions140Chapter 50Verbs140Exercise50.1,BeVerbs140Exercise50.2, ModalAuxiliaryVerbs140Exercise50.3, VerbsandInfinitives140Exercise50.4, Verbsand–ingVerbals141Exercise50.5, ConditionalSentences141

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ixChapter 51EnglishSentenceStructure141Exercise51.1, Subjects141Exercise51.2, Subjects142Exercise51.3, EnglishWordOrder142Exercise51.4, Placementof Modifiers142Exercise51.5, Placementof Modifiers142Exercise51.6, DanglingModifiers142

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xPrefaceThe Writer’s Handbookisaninvaluable classroom aid,asyouwillnodoubtdiscover(or alreadyknow!).Inpreparing thismanual,ourgoalhasbeentohelpyouuseThe Writer’s Handbookeffectivelyinteachingyourcourse.Morespecifically, wehaveaimedtoprovideyou withthreethings:•ahandyandeasilyconsultedguidetothetext;•aseriesofbriefsuggestionsandobservationsaboutteachingthematerialcoveredinthetext;•arichcompendiumof discussiontopics,activities,andassignments.ThisupdatededitionoftheInstructor’s ResourceManualincludessuggestions and assignmentsintendedtopreparestudentsforreal-worldwriting.Wealsoincludeadetailed sectiononhowtointroduce thehandbooktoyourclasstoensuretheygetthemostuseoutofit. Severalsamplesyllabigiveyoumodelsforintegratingthetextwithyourcourseworkthroughout thesemester.Weshouldemphasize thatthemanualdoesnotattempttoprovideacomprehensivesummaryofProfessorFaigley’stexts;nordoesitprovideaone-size-fits-all setofinstructionsforteachingawritingcourse.Rather,itisasourceofideasandactivitiesthatyoumayadapttoyourparticularneeds.Wehaveorganizedour discussions of theindividualchaptersunderthefollowingheadings:•Keypoints:Herewe summarizethecentralpointsof thechapter.•Teachingsuggestions:Hereweoffernotes,suggestions,andobservationsaboutthecontentsofthechapter.We’vedrawnthesesuggestionsfromourownexperiencewithteachingandadministeringwritingcoursesattheUniversity ofTexasatAustin,theUniversityof Hawaii-Hilo,andotherschools. Approachthemnotas directivesbutasreflections.Wehopethey’llhelpyoudeterminehowbesttoteachthematerialcoveredinthetexttoyourstudents.•In-classactivities:Theseactivitiescangenerallybecompletedinasingleclassperiod.Somerequireindividualwork.Othersrequirecollaboration.Somefocusonreal-worldanddisciplinary writingconcerns.We’veincludedanumberofactivitiesthatrequiretechnology, aswell.Ifcomputerorothertechnology accessislimitedinyourclassroom, youmightcompletesomeoftheseactivitiesinanon-campustechnologylab.Or,youmightassigntheactivitiesashomeworkandthendiscussstudents’experienceswhen theyreturntoclass.

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xi•Shortassignments:Theshortassignments,likethein-classactivities,areamixofindividual,collaborative,anddisciplinarywritingactivities.Wecreatedtheseassignmentsforinstructorstouseasdiscretehomeworkassignments.However,manyareflexibleenoughtocompleteinclass,orinconjunction withotherin-classactivitiesandshortassignments.NotethatstudentswillprobablyturntotheInternetasafirstresortwhenevertheyhavehomework,makingmostoftheseactivitiesdefactotechnologyassignments.Finally,awordofencouragement: Teachingwritingisdifficultanddemandingwork.Itisalsovitallyimportantwork.Wehopethatthismanualmakesyourworkeasier,andthatyou’llfind,as we do, thatteachingwritinghasgenuine—andoftensurprising—rewards.Bestof luckwithyour classes!

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xiiIntroducingTheWriter’sHandbooktoYourClassBelieveitornot,ahandbookcanbeintimidating.StudentsmayfeeloverwhelmedbyalltheinformationcontainedinTheWriter’sHandbook—especiallyiftheyfeeltheyhavealotofproblemareasintheirwriting.Takingsometimeatthebeginning ofthesemestertowalkthemthroughthepartsofthehandbook they’llbeusingthemostwillhelpensurethattheydoinfactconsultitwhen theyneedto.EXPLOREITSORGANIZATIONYoucanbeginbyshowingstudentsthemultiplewaysoffindinginformation inthehandbook.Therearemanydifferent“waysin.”TheTabbedSections, TableofContents,Common Errorslist,andIndexarejustsomeofthewaystoaccesstheinformation inTheWriter’sHandbook.Acquaintyourselfwiththeseorganizational aids,andlearnwhichonesworkbestin whichsituations.Forexample,we’vefoundthatthe indexatthe backofthe bookisoftenagoodstartingpointformanygrammarandusagequestions.Ifyouaretryingtoidentifyaparticulartypeofcommaproblem,youmightnotbesureifitisagrammaticalissue(Part8),amechanicalproblem(Part9),oraquestionofstyle(Part7).Simplylookingup“commas”inthealphabetical indexgivesyou alistof manysituationsinvolvingcommas,whichmayhelpyou narrow down your search.HIGHLIGHTITSUTILITYASAPROBLEM-SOLVERAskstudentstojotdownoneortwoproblemsthey knowthey habituallyhavewith their writing.(Theydon’thavetouse“correct”grammaticalterms;justdescribetheproblemintheirownwords.)Then,goaroundtheroomandlooksomeoftheseup,orhavestudentsworktofindsolutionsoradviceinthehandbookinsmallgroups.Theywillprobablybeheartenedtolearntheyarenotaloneinhavingcertainproblems—andyou’llgetasenseofwhattohelpthemwithduringthecourse.MODELITSUSEOnethingwecannotstressenoughishowimpressive itistostudentstoseetheirinstructorusethehandbook.Forexample, youmightstarttheexerciseabovebytellingthemaboutagrammarproblemfromyour own writing,andlookingitup as theywatch.Anytimewriting-related questionscomeupinclassandconferences,showstudentshowmosteducatedpeopleresolvethem:pickupyourhandbook andfindtheanswer.Thisisanextremelyusefulhabitforanyone,butespeciallyforcollegestudents.Inonesemester,youmightmanagetodrilloneortwogrammar“rules”intoyourstudents’heads—andtheymightevenremember

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xiiithoserulesamonthorayearlater.Butit’smuchbettertoteachstudents thesimplepractice oflookingupgrammarrulestheyaren’tsureof.Thisisaskillthatwilllastthemalifetime,andbearimmediateresultsintheimprovementof theirwriting.TIETHEHANDBOOKTOYOURCOURSEGOALSANDREQUIREMENTSWhataretheprimaryskillsyouhopeyourstudentswilldevelopinyourcourse?Argumentativeability?Sourceevaluation?Clean, powerfulwritingstyle?Whatskillsdoeseachassignmentorunitstress?Listtheseandtalkabout themwithyour students.Whyaretheyimportantskillsincollegeandbeyond?Thisisagoodtimetopreviewthechaptersinthehandbook thatdirectlyaddressyourcoursegoals.Doingsoearlyinthesemester givesstudents asenseofhowmuchworktheyhavetodo,howmuchtheywilllearninthecomingweeks,andhowmuchhelpthehandbookcangivethemas theystrivetomeetyour expectations.Thefirstweekofclassisalsoanexcellenttimetoapprisestudentsofyourexpectationsforformattingand correctnessofthe worktheywillturnin.Again,youcan tietheserequirementstospecificsectionsofthehandbook.Wefinditveryusefultohandoutastylesheetatthebeginning ofthesemester,whichstudentscanconsultforeverypapertheywrite.Astylesheetmightlooksomethinglikethis:StyleGuidelinesforEnglish 1301ProfessorDoeAllrough andfinaldraftssubmittedfor thisclassmustmeetthefollowingstandards:–12-pointfont;–double-spacedlines;–1.25-inchmargins.Alldraftsmustalsobefreeof thefollowing(consultthehandbookfor adviceon each):•spellingandpunctuationerrors (Part9)•run-on sentencesor fragments(Chapter33)•danglingor misplacedmodifiers(Chapter37)•subject-verbagreementerrors (Chapter34)Youcanlistasmanyguidelinesasyoulike,butit’sbettertokeepyourlistfairlyshortandincludeageneralstatementthatencouragesstudentstoworktowardaclean,error-freestyle.Remember,theyarelearninghow toachievethis.Iftherearecertainerrorsthatbotheryoumorethanothers,youcouldspendafewmoments ononehandbook chapterthatcoversa“petpeeve”ofyours—run-onsentences,spellingerrors,clarity—andgo overthesolutionstotheproblemindetail.Whenyougooveryourformatting guidelines forpapers,youcanalsotakealookatthestyle

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xivchaptersforMLA(Chapter23)andAPA(Chapter24).Part4givesextensiveguidelinesfordesigningdocuments,visualtexts,andothermultimediacomposing.EXPLAINHOWTOUSETHEHANDBOOKTHROUGHOUTTHEWRITINGPROCESSOncestudentsunderstand thattheywillbedraftingandrevisingtheirpapersinyourclass,tellthemhowyouwillrefertohandbooksectionsinyourcommentsontheirdrafts.Willyoumentionchaptersorsectionnumberstheyshouldrefertoforspecificproblems?Willyouwriteanendcomment pointingthemtocertainissues?Willyouwritesectionnumbersinthemarginsnexttoerrorsyounotice?Stressthattheywillberesponsibleforsynthesizingyourcommentsandthehandbook’s advicetoimprovetheirpapers.At thebeginningof thesemester,notethedocumentationstylestudentswilluse inyour classandreviewthecorrespondingchapterofthehandbook(seePart6).Thissectionofthehandbookalsodetailsfourstepsforplanningresearchandfindingsources.Thisis agoodtimeto handoutmapstocampus libraries,listsofavailabledatabases,URLstoresourcesforyourdiscipline,andotherinformationstudentscanuse tofacilitateresearchfor your class.Youshoulddiscussplagiarisminyourfirstorsecondclass,coveringyourinstitution’sdefinitionsofplagiarism,collusion,andacademicdishonesty,anddetailingthepossibleconsequences(ideally,youwillhaveastatementaboutplagiarisminyoursyllabusaswell).ThenlookoverChapter21inthehandbook,sostudentscanseetherearewaystomakesuretheyhaven’tplagiarized.Ifyouhavestudents whoturninpoorlyplanned, hastilywrittenwork(orstudents whoturninhighlypolishedworkwithverylittlesubstance toit),directthemtoPart1:Planning, Drafting,andRevising.StudentswhoneedtoimprovetheircriticalreadingskillswillprofitfromstudyingthematerialinChapter5:ReadandViewwithaCriticalEye.Andiftables,charts,orothervisualsarepartofyourcurriculum, youmightwantyourstudentstotakealookatPart4,DesigningandPresenting.VirtuallyallstudentswillbenefitfromthematerialinPart7,EffectiveStyleandLanguage. Wehavefoundthissectionespecially usefulforstudentswhohaveachieved afairlysophisticatedcommandof mechanicsandgrammar,butstillproducestilted,wordy, or lifelesswriting.NonnativespeakersofEnglishwillfindPart10,IfEnglishIsNotYourFirstLanguage,helpfulinmanyways.Itcoversgeneralwritingconcernsfornonnativespeakers,andalso offersdetailedinformationon aspectsof Englishgrammarandusage.

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xvIfYouAreTeachingaWriting-IntensiveClassManyinstructors indisciplines otherthanEnglishandcompositionworrythatthey“don’tknowenoughgrammar”toteachawriting-intensive course.WhenyouuseTheWriter’sHandbookinyourwriting-intensiveclass,youdon’tneedtobean“expert.”Instead,youcan referyourstudentstothehandbook whenever necessary, oruseitasareferenceyourselfwhen planningclasses,respondingtostudentwriting,anddesigningassignments.Whenyouteach withTheWriter’sHandbook,youhaveawritingexpertatyoursidewhenever youneed one—andso doyour students.Manystudentsfeelthatcoursesinwritingandcompositionareadistractionfromtheir“real”college careers. TheymaywonderwhattheywillgainfromthiscourseiftheygotAsinhighschoolEnglish oriftheyplantoworkinfieldsthatdon’tinvolvemuchwriting. Explaintoyourstudentsthatwritingispervasive intheworldofwork.ACollegeBoardsurveyoftheBusinessRoundtable(“Writing:ATickettoWork...OraTicketOut”)foundthatwritingabilityiscriticalformostsalariedemployees,andisanimportantconsideration inhiring,firing,andpromotion. Nomattertheircourseofstudyorcareerplans,yourstudentsneedtoknowhowtowriteeffectively.Remember, too,thatTheWriter’sHandbookoffersmuchmorethangrammarandusageinformation. Ourintegratedcoverageofvisualliteracyskillsand“eyes-on”presentation offourmajordocumentationstylesmakeThe Writer’sHandbookespeciallyusefulfor contentcourses atalllevels,inallfields.OurextensivesectiononESLwriterscansaveyouandthenonnativespeakersinyour classroomalotof frustration.

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xii.SampleSyllabiHerearethreemodelsyllabishowingwaysinwhichTheWriter’sHandbookcanbeincorporatedintoyourplanforthesemester.Allpartsofthehandbook,ofcourse,shouldbe referredtoandusedasneededtoaddressstudents’writingissuesastheybecomeevident.ButTheWriter’sHandbookisdesignedtofitneatlyintosomecommoncoursestructures,such as thefollowing.SampleSyllabusforuseincompositioncoursewithrhetoricalfocusWeekFocusAssignedReadings1CourseintroductionChapter1:ThinkasaWriterChapter5& 6:ReadandViewwithaCriticalEye2Paper1:RhetoricalanalysisChapter7:Write an AnalysisChapter2:PlanandDraft3DraftingChapter3:ComposeParagraphs4RevisionChapter4:Rewrite,Edit,andProofreadParts7–9,asneeded5Paper2:EvaluationofanadvertisementChapters9&10:WriteArgumentsChapter14:CommunicateinMultimedia6DraftingChapter27:ComposeParagraphs7RevisionChapter28:WriteConciselyChapter29:WritewithEmphasis8Paper3:PositionargumentwithWebsiteReviewChapter9:WriteaPositionArgumentChapter15:DesignPresentations9ResearchChapter16:PlanYourResearchChapters17–19,asneeded10DraftingChapter20:PlanYourResearch11RevisionChapter21:FindSources12Paper4:ProposalargumentwithprimaryresearchChapter10:WriteaProposalArgument13ResearchChapter19:PlanFieldResearch14DraftingReviewChapter22:WriteandRevisetheResearchProject15RevisionworkshopParts7–9,asneeded

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xiii.SampleSyllabusforuseinwritingcoursewithresearchfocusWeekFocus/AssignmentAssignedReadings1CourseintroductionChapter1:ThinkasaWriterChapter5& 6:ReadandViewwithaCriticalEye2Paper1:ObservationSection12b:WriteanobservationChapter19:PlanFieldResearch3DraftingChapter2:PlanandDraftChapter3:ComposeParagraphs4RevisionChapter4:Rewrite,Edit,andProofreadParts7,8,and9,asneeded5Paper2:InformativepaperChapter8:WriteanInformativeEssaySection19b:Conductinterviews6DraftingChapter27:WritewithPower7RevisionChapter28:WriteConcisely8Paper3:AnalyticalresearchpaperChapter7:WriteanAnalysisChapter16:PlanYourResearch9OutliningChapter22:WriteandRevisetheResearchProject10AnnotatedbibliographyPart6:IncorporatingandDocumentingSources11DraftingChapter20:UnderstandandAvoidPlagiarismChapter23,24,25,or2612PeerreviewandrevisionReviewSection4c:Respondtootherwriters’drafts13Paper4:FormalpresentationofresearchfindingsChapter14:CommunicateinMultimediaChapter15:DesignPresentations14RevisionChapters27–31,asneeded15Finalpresentations

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xiv.SampleSyllabusforuseinwriting-intensivecommunicationscourseforbusinessmajorsWeekFocusAssignedReadings1CourseintroductionChapter1:ThinkasaWriterChapter5& 6:ReadandViewwithaCriticalEye2Assignment1:PerformanceReportWITWProject:“TrackingSales,Profits,andCustomers,”onMyCompLab™3DraftingChapter2:PlanandDraftChapter3:ComposeParagraphs4RevisionChapter4:Rewrite,Edit,andProofreadParts7,8,and9,asneeded5Paper2:Analysis/casestudyChapter7:WriteanAnalysisSection12c:WriteaCaseStudy6ResearchChapter16:PlanYourResearchChapters17–19,asneeded7DraftingChapter14:CommunicateinMultimedia8RevisionChapter14c:DesignDocuments9Paper3:ProposalargumentwithpresentationChapter10:WriteaProposalArgument10DraftingChapter15:DesignPresentations11StyleworkshopReviewParts7,8,and9,asneeded12Classpresentations13Paper4:LetterandrésuméSection12e:WriteaLetterofApplicationSection12f:WriteaRésumé14RevisionworkshopReviewPart7,asneeded15GroupEditingReviewParts8and9,asneeded

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15,Inc.PART1Planning,Drafting,andRevisingCHAPTER1ThinkasaWriterKEYPOINTS•Writingincollegemaymeandifferentthingsfromonecoursetoanother; however,thereareanumberof importantexpectationsfor collegewritingthatremainthesameinanycourse.•Thethreeessentialcomponentsofanyactofcommunication—thewriter/speaker,theaudience,andthemessage—canberepresentedby therhetoricaltriangle.•Thestartingpointforeffectivewritingistodetermine inadvancewhatyouwanttoaccomplish: Toreflect?Toinform?Topersuade?Yourpurposewilldeterminethetoneandpresentationof your message.•According toAristotle,thethreemaintacticsofpersuasionareappealsbasedonthetrustworthiness ofthespeaker(ethos);appealstotheemotionsandvaluesoftheaudience(pathos);andappealstologic,reasoning,andevidence(logos).•Readers ofcollegewritingexpect tolearnsomethingtheydidn’t knowalready.Thegoalofthecollegewriteristoproducesomenewperspective orideathatconnectsknownfactsandcontributestoanongoingdebateor investigation.•Generally,awriterdevelopsaneffectiveethosbyappearingknowledgeable aboutasubject.Clear,error-freewritingenhancesthewriter’scredibility.TEACHINGSUGGESTIONS•Theideaspresentedinthischapterseemsimple,butstudentsmayfinditsurprisinglydifficulttoputthemintoconsistentpractice.Theythinkofreadingandwritingasiftheyexistedinavacuum—saying,forinstance,thataparticular editorial iscategorically“good”or“bad,”orthataparticularformofwritingis“tooflowery”or“notdirectenough.”Emphasize that,beforejudgingapieceofwriting,studentsshouldconsidertheauthor’spurposeandrhetorical context.Whatwashehopingtoachieve? Whowashisaudience?Howdidhecraftthepiecetoappealtothataudience?Alsoemphasizethatstudentsshouldasksimilarquestionsabouttheirown

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16,Inc.writing.What’smypurpose?Whoismyaudience? HowshouldIcraftthispiecesothatitachievesmypurposeinthisparticularcontext?•Students findethos,pathos,andlogospowerfultoolsforanalysis.Oncestudentsfeelcomfortable withtheterms,theywillusethemfrequently,andnotonlyinyourcourse.Whenintroducingthethreeappeals,emphasize Aristotle’spoint:thesearethethreeprimarymeansofmakingone’sargument.Theirusedoesnotguarantee thatanargument willbepersuasive,andtheycanbeusedwithvaryingdegrees ofskill.Likewise, nosingleappeal isthe“mostimportant,”andthereisnoone“mix”ofappealsthatisalwaysbest.Anargument’spersuasiveness isnotdetermined solelybyitsclaimsandreasons.Thepersonmakingtheargument isalsoimportant. Doessheseemcredible?Istheaudiencealreadyfamiliarwithher?Whydo companiesscrambletosignathleteslikeMichaelJordanandSerenaWilliamstoendorsesports-relatedparaphernalia? Whydoothercompanieshavethemendorsenon-sports-relatedparaphernalia?Theskillwithwhichthewriterorspeakeraddressesthevaluesandemotionsoftheaudienceisalsocentraltoanargument’seffectiveness.•Ethical,pathetic,andlogicalappealsoftenoverlap.Anethicalappealcanalsobeapatheticappeal,andviceversa.Statisticalevidence,normallyassociatedwithanargument’s logicalappeal,canalsoappealstronglytothevaluesoremotionsoftheaudience (thisiswhyitissotemptingtoskewvisuals toemphasizeapoint). When analyzinganauthor’suseoftherhetoricalappeals,thepointisnotsimplytoidentifyeachappealaseitherethical,pathetic,orlogical,buttorecognizethevariety,interaction,andeffectofalltheappeals.However,inanygiventext,youmightnoticethatanauthortendstorelyononeorseveraloftheappealsmorethantheothers.IN-CLASSACTIVITIES•Askstudentstocreatebrief outlines,from memory,ofsome commontypes ofappeals.Mostofthemwillbefamiliarwiththeadsusedbycharityandchildren’sreliefagencies; forexample:Whatappealsdosuchadsrelymoston?Whatdoesafundraisingletterforananimalsheltergenerallyfeature?Anadforlifeinsurance?Whatappeals dotheseactsofcommunicationmake,andhow do theymakethem?•Studentsmightfinditinteresting tothinkaboutaconfusingwritingassignmenttheyhadinthepastastheygothroughthequestionsin“Identifyyourpurposesforwriting.”Withthebenefitofhindsight,cantheytellwhatkindof writingtheyweredoing?•Havestudentsexaminetheirownreadingpractices.Dotheirhabitshelporhindertheirabilitytoassessawriter’spurpose?Youmightdevelopabriefquestionnaireforstudentstofillout:Whendotheydomostoftheirreading? Dotheyreadwithpenorpencilinhand?Dotheyreadthingsstraightthrough,skim,orreadinspurts?Explainthatexperiencedreadersrarelyreadalengthytextfrompageonestraight toitsend.Scholars,forinstance,oftenreadanarticle’sintroduction,conclusion,andbibliographybeforereadingthewholethingstraightthrough.Whenpresentedwithreports,CEOsreadtheexecutivesummary,thenfliptotheconclusion.Emphasizethatstudentshavethepowertoskiparoundwhentheyread.Gettinganoverviewof

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17,Inc.anarticle(byreadingtheopeningandclosingbitsandallofthesubheads,forinstance)willhelpthemreadthepiececritically andcarefully.Finally,teachyourstudentsthatbyfocusingonthecentralpointsof thischapter,theycanbecomebetterreaders.•Teachingwithtechnologyactivity.Havestudentsassesshowwellaparticular Websiteappealstoitsintendedaudiencebyanalyzingthesite’semploymentofpathetic,ethical,andlogicalappeals.SHORTASSIGNMENTS•Haveindividualstudentsfind oneorseveraltextsontheirown(e.g.,editorialsfromthecampusnewspaper,onlinearticles,personalWebpages)andassesshowwellthey appealtotheirintendedaudiencesbyanalyzingthetext’semployment ofpathetic,ethical,andlogicalappeals.Foreach text,the studentshouldidentifythe intendedaudience,the specificcontextinwhich theargumentisbeingmade,andtheauthor’spurposeinmakingtheargument.•Distributeapiece ofpersuasivewritingandinstruct studentstoreaditcarefully,thenunderlineandidentifyinthemarginseveryethical,logical,andpathetic appealthattheauthoremploys(remindthemthatsomewillprobably overlap).Then,havestudentswriteabriefessaysummarizingandevaluatingtheauthor’suseof eachappeal.•Havestudentsfindanarticleinprintoronlinethataddressesaspecificaudience. Askthemtodescribeinoneortwoparagraphs(1)thekindsofreadersthatmakeuptheaudience and(2)thewriter’s strategyinwriting tothis audience.Doesthe author makeherarticleavailabletoarangeof readers?How?•Havestudentschooseanewspaperormagazine, examineit,andwriteaprofileofitsaudiencebasedon itsgeneralcontent,advertisements,anddesign.•Havestudents rewriteashortpieceoftheirownwork,changing someaspectoftherhetoricaltriangle.Changetheaudience:insteadofcollegestudents,writeforjuniorhighstudents.Changethepurposebymakinganinformative pieceintoanentertaining piece.Changetheethosoftheauthorby writinginadifferenttoneor by usingdialector slang.

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18,Inc.CHAPTER2PlanandDraftKEYPOINTS• Experiencedwritersestablishtheirgoalsbeforebeginninganywritingproject.•Whencompletinganyacademic assignment, it’scrucialthatstudents(1)respondtotheassignmentappropriately,and(2) selectatopicthatbothfitstheassignmentandappealstothem.•Experiencedwritersuseanumberofdifferentstrategiesforexploringtopics,brainstorming,focusingtheirthinking, anddraftingtheirwork.Students shouldbeginlearningwhichstrategieswork bestfor them.•Aftergeneratingideas,anexperiencedwriter selectsthe best ofthemtocontinueworkingwith.Sheaimstoproduceaworkingthesisthatisspecific,manageable,andinteresting.•Thebestwritersknowthatnobodygetseverything rightthefirsttime.Theirgoalistowriteagood draftthattheycango backandreviselater.TEACHINGSUGGESTIONS•Theveryfirststepinanyacademicwritingprojectisreadingtheassignmentcarefullyandunderstandingit.Helpstudentsbreakthis processdowninto discretesteps.Studentsshouldlearnto(1)recognizeimportantwordsintheassignment,(2)discernthepurposeoftheassignment,(3)determinethematerialtheassignmentismeanttocover,(4)understandthedetailsoftheassignment,and(5) askquestionsaboutanyaspectof theassignmentthattheydon’tunderstand.• Considerallowingstudentstoselecttheirown topicsfor theirmajorassignments.Alternatively,allowthemtoselecttheirtopicinatleastoneoftheirmajorassignments.Encourage themtoexperimentwithsomeof theinventionexercisesinChapter2.•Someofyourstudentswillhaveafairlyclearsenseofhowtheyworkandlearnbest.(Forexample,somewillalreadyknowthattheyareprimarilyvisualoraurallearners.)Encouragethesestudentstousetheprewritingexercisesthatworkbestforthem.Butalsoencouragethemtotrynewmethods,sincemanypeople workbestwithacombinationofvisual,aural,andtactileinput.•Explain thatthewritingprocessisnotlinearbutrecursive. Asstudents moveforwardthroughthestagesofprewriting,drafting,andrevising,they’llalsooccasionallyreturntoearlierstepsintheprocess.•Manystudentshavepoorinventionalresources.Theyassumethatexperiencedwritersdon’t

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19,Inc.havetorely onsuch“tricks”asbrainstormingandfreewriting;that,forthe lucky few,wordsandideasjustappearoutofthinair.Sharingyourowninvention processforapieceofwritingmaygivethemabettersenseof itsvalue.•Encouragestudentstothink abouttimemanagement.Howmuchtimedothey havetocompletetheassignment? Howmuchtimewilltheyneedtodevelopatopic?Towriteafirstdraft?Torevisethatdraft?Youwantyourpedagogytoseempracticalandrealistic.Encourage yourstudentstobebothresponsibleandefficientwriters.•Somestudents won’tknowwhatyoumeanby“roughdraft.”Youshoulddefinewhataroughdraftis—perhapsevenworkingwithstudentstoproduceadefinition—inspecificterms.Herearesomepossibilities:Aroughdraftisanearlypassthroughtheentireproject.Itistheresultofsubstantialtimeandwork.Aroughdrafthasanintroduction,athesisstatement,argumentsandevidencesupportingthatthesisstatement,andaconclusion.Aroughdraftisn’tperfect.Butitiscompleteenoughtogiveareaderaglimpseofthewriter’scompleteargumentandevidence.Aroughdraftisreadable.It’sdouble-spaced,withamplemargins.Ifit’shandwritten,itisprintedininkandwrittenon everyotherline.•Haveareasonable policyregardinggroupwork,andexplainittoyourstudentssotheyknowthey willnot endupdoing morethan theirshareofthe workonaproject.Oneoptionistoassign“ProcessLogs,”whicheachmemberofagroupturnsindirectlytoyoutwoorthreetimesduringagroupproject.Students mustrecordwhatworktheyhavedone,andwhen,andwhattherestofthegroup’scontributions havebeentodate.RequiringtheseProcessLogsdoesmuchtopreventunfairworkloaddistribution.IN-CLASSACTIVITIES•Surveyyourstudentstoseewhichinventionstrategies theyhaveusedinthepast,andwhichoneshaveworkedwellforthem.Askthemtodescribe whattheylikeordon’tlikeaboutparticular strategies.Alsoaskthemiftherearestrategiesdescribedinthechapterthattheyhavenevertried.Encouragethemtotryatleastonenewinventionstrategyfor theirnextassignment.•Choose an issuethatis ofconcernonyourcampusand holda groupbrainstormingsession.Usethesix“reporter’squestions” insection2btogenerateideasaroundthetopic.Writealltheideasonthe board. Listevery idea,andmodelforstudentshowtodeferevaluationofideasduringthisstageofthewritingprocess.Keepthebrainstorminggoingaslongasstudentshaveideas,and

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20,Inc.thenpushitalittlefarther. Agoodruleofthumb is,“Thinkofalltheideasyoucan,andthenthinkof atleastthreemore.”•Collaborative activity.Aftercompletingthebrainstormingactivityabove,breakstudentsintopairsorsmallgroupsandhavethem develop uptothree focusedtopics fromtheideasgeneratedby theclass.•Moststudentsneedtopracticewriting,revising,andevaluatingthesisstatements.Showstudentsarangeofthesisstatements—from studentpapers,fromacademicarticles,fromnewspapersandmagazines. Youcanalsohavestudentsworkupthesisstatementsfromthefocusedtopicstheygeneratedinthecollaborativeactivityabove.•Collaborativeactivity.UsetheStayingonTrackbox“Evaluate yourworkingthesis”tofocusstudents’ thesesbeforetheybegindrafting.Youcanhavethemdraftaworkingthesisandexchange withtheirpeers.Askthemtorespondtotheirpeer’sthesisalongthesamelinesastheexamples inthebox.Inwhatwaysisthethesistoospecificornotspecificenough? Howmuchresearchdoesitseemlikelytorequire? Howinterestingisit?Whatmightimprove it?Havestudentsdiscussthecommentstheyreceive,revisetheirworkingthesis,andthenswitchwithnewpartnerstoseeiftheygetbetterresponses.•Ifyoucan,haveaprofessionalwritervisityourclass.Haveherdescribe herownprewritingpractices.Howdoesshebrainstorm?Howdoesshefocushertopicanddraftherwork?Howdoesshemanagehertime?SHORTASSIGNMENTS•Keepinga“TimeLog”forthecompletewritingprocessofonepaperisonewaytohelpstudentslearntomanagetheirwritingtime.Helpthemworkbackwardsfromthedeadline tosetproximal goalsfordifferentstepsintheirwritingprocess.Thiscanbeespeciallyhelpfulforresearchprojects.•Disciplinary writingassignment.Givestudents fiveorsixshortessayquestionsfromdifferentacademic disciplinesand,foreach,havestudentswriteaparagraphdescribing(1)thekindofworkthequestionisaskingstudentstodo,and(2)howtheywouldansweritiftheyencountered itonanexam.Alternately,askthemtodescribewritingtheyhavedonethatwaspromptedbykeywordssuchasthoselistedin2a.Whatdoes“analyze”meaninanEnglishclass?Doesitmeanthesamethinginachemistryclass?“Define”hasveryspecific,verydifferentmeaningsinrhetoricandinpsychology.Havethemwriteaparagraphor twoabouttheirexperience withthesekindsofwords.Notethat,inadditiontodifferentdisciplinarymeanings,thesetermscanbeunderstoodverydifferentlybydifferentinstructors.Encourageyourstudentstoalwayscheck withtheinstructorwhenevertheyareindoubtaboutthewritingtaskrequiredofthem.Thisispartofassessingone’saudienceasawriter.•Teachingwithtechnologyassignment.Assigntwofreewritingactivities. Require studentstocompleteoneoftheactivitiesusingacomputerandtheotherusingpenandpaper.Then,have

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21,Inc.studentssharetheirexperiences.Whichofthetwotechnologies didtheyfindmoreeffectiveforfreewriting?Didoneofferanyclearadvantagesor disadvantages?•Teachingwithtechnologyassignment.Provide students withabigsubject toconsider(e.g.,sea level rise,cloning,guncontrol). Havestudentsusedifferent keywords for an internet search,tonarrowthefocusofthesubjectuntiltheyhaveatopicthatismanageable inafive-pageacademicessay.•Collaborativeassignment.Afterstudentshaveresearchedtheir topics,havethemcomparethetopicstheychose(seeassignmentabove).Havestudentsassessoneanother’stopics.Iseachtopicmanageable? Aresomestilltoolarge?Havesomebecometoonarrow?YoucanusethequestionsintheStayingon Trackbox “Evaluateyour workingthesis.”•Disciplinarywritingassignment.Thehypothesisofanexperiment mayseemlikeastartingpoint,butinfactitistheresultofagreatdealofpreliminaryexploration.Haveeachstudentchooseafamousscientificexperiment—BenFranklin’skiteandkey,EdwardJenner’ssmallpoxvaccine,Galileo’sfallingbodiesexperiment, forexample—andtrytoreconstructthehypothesisthatgaverisetotheexperiment. Thisisagoodexercisein“focusing”atopic.Theymightthenreversetheprocess,constructingahypothesisoftheirownforanexperiment basedontheirobservationof theworldaroundthem.

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22,Inc.CHAPTER3ComposeParagraphsKEYPOINTS•Paragraphstructurehelpsreadersnavigate throughtexts.Itisgenerally expectedthataparagraphwilladdressasingletopicandthatasequenceofparagraphswillsetoutalineofthoughtthatreaderscaneasilyfollow.•Thetopicsentenceofaparagraphcanbeeitherexplicitlyorimplicitlystated.Thereisno“rule”thatatopicsentencemustbeplacedatthebeginningof aparagraph.•Youcanconstructcoherentparagraphsbystrategicallyreiteratingkeytermsandphrasesandusingcleartransitionalterms.Similarmethodsallowyou tolinkideasacrossparagraphs.•Beginning andendingparagraphs performspecialtasks.Beginning paragraphs mustconvincereadersto keepreading.Endingparagraphsremindreaderswheretheyhavebeenand invitethemtocarryyour ideasforward.TEACHINGSUGGESTIONS•Muchoftheneedforparagraphstructurecanbeexplained byusingoneofAristotle’sterms:ethos.Mostaudiences expectaparagraphtohaveaclearpurposeandtodealwithonecentralpointorseveralcloselyrelatedpoints.Awriterwholeadsreaderstoexpect something fromaparagraph,andthendoesn’tdeliver,willlosecredibility—andprobablyhisaudience.•Emphasizethatitismucheasiertocomposeeffectiveparagraphsafterextensiveprewritingwork.Afterdraftingaworkingthesisandaworkingoutline, youhaveaclearersenseofwhatmostof theparagraphsinyour essayshoulddo.•Transitionsanddecisionsaboutparagraph lengthrequire somefinesse,andarehighlycontext-specific. Havestudents considerthesedecisionsinothers’writing,buthonetheirskillsbyrevisingtheirownwriting.Forexample,havethemreviewtheirroughdraftalongsidetheStayingonTrackbox“Usetransitional terms.”Dothetransitional termstheyhaveusedaccuratelysignaltherelationshipsbetweentheirideas?IN-CLASSACTIVITIES•Assignafeaturearticleinamagazine thatshowcasesskillfulwriting,suchasHarper’s,TheAtlantic, orTheNewYorker.Havestudentsidentifythevariouswaystheauthorachievesparagraphunity andsignalstransitions.UsetheStayingonTrackbox“Usetransitionalterms”toidentifytherelationshipsbetweenideasthateachtransitionsignals.

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23,Inc.•Yourstudentswilllikelyhavebeentaughtanumberof“rules”aboutintroductory andconcludingparagraphs.For example:Conclusionsshouldrestatethethesis,butwith“somethingnew.”An introductionhastobethreesentences,withthefinalsentenceservingasthethesis.Allintroductionsshouldorientreadersandpreparethemfor what’stocomeintheessay.Everythingintheessayshouldbeforecastintheintroduction.Someofthese“rules”maybeusefuladvice,whileothersmayunnecessarily restrictstudents’writing.Inaclassdiscussion,listallsuchrulesanddiscussthem onebyone.Aretheyhelpful?Dotheymakewritingeasier?Inwhatkinds ofwritingsituationsaretheylikelytoworkbest?Doyour studentsfrequentlyseeevidencethatreal-worldwritersfollowtheserules?•DisciplinaryWritingActivity.Askstudentswhichparagraph structures theythinkarecommontospecificdisciplines, andwhatworkeachtypeofparagraphmightperformindisciplinarywriting.Wheremightadescriptive paragraphbefoundinalabreport?Whydoengineersrelyheavilyonprocessstructure? Arecomparisonparagraphsmorecommoninsociologists’writingor inthatof computerscientists?•Havestudentsreadapieceofpersuasivewriting,underliningallthetransitionalwordsandphrasesthattheauthorusestosignalrelationshipsbetweensentences andparagraphs. Arethereplaceswheretheauthormighthaveaddedtransitionalwordsandphrases?Arethereplaceswhereimportantconnectionsweren’tclearlyemphasizedor articulated?SHORTASSIGNMENTS•Givestudentsaparagraphthathashadalltransitionalwordsandphrasesremoved.Askthemtosupplyanytransitional materialneededtoproduceastrong,coherent paragraph.Whenstudentsreturntoclass,letthemcompare theirparagraphswiththeoriginal,anddiscussthenuancesofdifferenttransitionalwords andphrases.•Copyapersuasiveessayfromamagazinebuthidetheintroduction.Havestudentsreadthearticleandwriteanoriginalintroduction appropriatetotheauthor’saims,subject,andrhetoricalcontext.You canalsodo thisactivitywithanarticle’sconclusion.•Havestudentsfindanarticleoressaywithanopenerorcloserthattheyparticularly admire.Havestudentswriteaparagraphexplainingwhytheythinktheopenerorcloseriseffective.Haveseveral students present theirworktotheclass.Or,youcouldinsteadhavethemfindandanalyzeanineffectiveopening.

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24,Inc.CHAPTER4Rewrite,Edit,andProofreadKEYPOINTS•Whenrewriting,don’tsweatthesmallstuffatthebeginning. Don’teditorproofreaduntilyou’veaddressedtheessay’sfocus,itsargument,andwhetheritmeetstherequirements oftheassignment.•Whenreadingapeer’sdraft,readthreetimes:firsttounderstand whatthewriterwastryingtoaccomplish,thentomakenotesoncontent,organization, andtone,andlastlytopayattentiontostyleandsentence-levelproblems.Studentscanusethesamestrategiesforreadingtheirownwork.TEACHINGSUGGESTIONS•Studieshaveshownthat studentsandinstructorsoftenhavequitedifferentunderstandingsof—andexpectations for—therevisionprocess.Youmightmodelanddiscussinspecificdetailwhatyou expectstudentstodo whenrewriting,editing,andproofreadingadraft.• Here’show wegenerallydefinerewriting,editing,andproofreadingwithour students:Rewritingaddresseslarge-scaleissues,includinggeneralfocus,purpose,content,audience,andorganization.Editingaddressessmaller-scaleissues,includingword choice,style,tone,andtheeffectivenessof theessay’stransitions.Proofreadingconcernstheappearanceofadocument.Whenyouproofread,youcheckforerrorsinpunctuation,spelling,andusage.You alsocheckfor typosanderrorsinformatting.•Westrivetopracticewhatwepreachwhenwerespondtostudentwriting.Forexample, don’tfocusonerrorsofproofreadingandeditinginaroughdraft.Rather,considerbig-picture, large-scaleissues,assumingyouhavealreadyexplainedthatthefinaldraftneedstobeapolished,completework.Somequestionstoconsiderwhenreadingandrespondingtoaroughdraftinclude:Doesthisdraftaddressallrequirementsof theassignment?Doesthisdrafthaveacentral,focusedthesisappropriatetotheassignment?

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25,Inc.Isthedraftcorrectlyproportioned?Thatis,aretheideasdevelopedinrelationtotheirimportance?Doesthedraftfollowthroughonitspromises?Doesitsupportalltheclaimsthatitmakesinitsthesis?Is thedrafteffectivelyorganized?Doesthedraftrequiremoreresearch,betterdiscussionofcentralpoints,orbetteruseofevidenceandexamples?Is thedraftcorrectlyformatted?Isthegrammar,syntax,orspellingsoflawedastoimpedereaders’understandingoftheauthor’sideas?It’sbestnottorespondtoeverythingthatneedsrevisionorimprovement,unlessyou’reworkingwithaveryexperienced writer(andpreparingtheirworkforpublicationorpublicpresentation).Rather, withmoststudent drafts,you’ll wanttonotethetwoorthreemostpressingissuesandemphasizetheminyour response.•It’salsoimportant thatyoutalkopenlywithyourstudentsaboutyourresponsestotheirwork.Explaintothemwhatyourgoalsareinrespondingtoeachoftheirassignments.Whenreadingatopic proposal,doyoulookforthesamethingsthatyouwouldwhilereading afinaldraft? Also,makesurestudentsunderstandhowtouseyourcomments.Forinstance,shouldtheyaddressonlythosepartsof theessaythatyou’vecommentedon?•Whenrespondingtofinaldrafts,wegenerallycomment onthequalityandstrategyofthestudent’sargument,theirworkontheessay,andtheirownsenseofitssuccess(whichtheyhavedescribed inabriefself-assessment).Wheneverpossible,wetrytomakeconnectionstothenextessayassignment,or,attheendoftheterm,tothestudent’sdevelopmentasawriteroverthepastseveralmonths. Wemake surethatourcommentsareorganizedandprioritized.Ratherthannotingeverythingabouttheessay—goodandbad—weemphasizethemostimportantthings.Wemakesuretonoteasmanypositivethingsaswecanabouttheessay.Wealsomakesuretoconnectourcomments—asmuchaspossible—tothegradingcriterialistedontheassignmentsheet.Ofcourse,students knowthatafinaldraftisafinaldraft:Thisistheessaythatgetsthegrade.Evenso,trytoencouragestudents tothinkbeyondtheirfinaldrafts,andtoseetheirworkinthisclassassomethingthatevolveslongaftertheycompletetheirassignments.•ReviewtheproofreadingmarksintheWritingSmartbox“Standardproofreadingsymbols.” Ifyouusedifferentoradditional markswhenyoucommentongrammarandmechanics, explainthosemarkstoyour students.•Encourage studentstousealltheresourcesattheirdisposalwhenrewriting.Doesyourschoolhaveawritinglabortutoringcenterwherestudentscanmeetindividuallywithtrained

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26,Inc.consultants? Ifso,makesurestudentsknowabouttheservicesitprovides. Also,explainyourschool’splagiarismandcollusionpolicies.Inmostcases,thesepoliciesarespecificallydesignedtoallowstudentsinwritingclassestohelponeanotheroutsideof class.IN-CLASSACTIVITIES•Disciplinary writingactivity.Bringinanunfinishedpieceofyourownwritingforclassdiscussion.Havestudentsusethesuggestionsinsections4aor4ctowriteabriefresponsetoyour draft.Afterstudentshavefinished,discussthedraftandthevarioussuggestionsthatstudentshavemade.•Discusshowitfeelstohaveyourwriting“edited”bysomeoneelse.Doyourstudentsstillremembergettingpapersbackinhighschoolwiththeteacher’sred-inkremarksscrawledalloverthem?Howdidtheyrespond?Didthevisualpresenceofsomeoneelse’sideasontheirpieceofwritingmakeit easierorharderto revise,orto producea draftthenexttimetheytriedtowrite?•Teachingwithtechnologyactivity.Ifpossible,demonstratealternativemethodsofcommenting onotherpeople’swriting.Applications suchasGoogleDocsallowreaderstoaddcomments.Audiocommentary canevenbeaddedtotextfiles,sothewritercanlistentocommentswhilefollowingalonginthetexton thecomputerscreen.•Collaborativeactivity.Havestudentsbringtoclassaroughdraft ofanessaytheyareworkingon,eitherforyourclassoranother(checkyourinstitution’srulesonunauthorized collusionifusingessaysfromanother class).Haveeachstudent tradeessayswithapartner, andusethesuggestions insections4cand4etoassessthepartner’s draft.Havestudents discussthekindsofrevisioneachneedstodo beforeturninginafinaldraftof theirproject.•Ifyouhaveastudent paperfromanearlierterm,asktheauthor’spermission tomakecopiesofitforyourcurrentclass(youmayremovetheauthor’snameifsorequested).Havestudents giveagradetotheessayaccordingtothegradingcriteriayoucreatedfortheassignment.Studentscanthendiscussandcompare thegradestheyassigned.Isthereconsensusintheclass,ordidstudentshavewidelydifferingopinionsaboutthequalityoftheessay?Thisactivitymightleadtodiscussionaboutyourownstrategies forresponding tostudentwork,andabouthowstudentsshouldunderstandandrespondtoyour comments.•Toguidediscussionofmoregeneralrevisionissues,likelogic,structure,andgrammar,lookforanypoorlywrittenessayatanonline “paper mill”(asearchfor“freeessays”willturnupmanysuchsites).Thesesitesarefullof anonymousessaysdemonstratingawiderangeof writingflaws.SHORTASSIGNMENTS•Someteachers havestudents turninarevisionrecordalongwithafinaldraftofanessay.Inarevisionrecord,studentsrecordtheworktheydidinrethinking,rewriting,editing,and

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27,Inc.proofreadingtheirfirstdrafts.Thisexerciseishelpfulforanumberofreasons.First,revisionrecordsoftenhelpstudents getabettersenseoftheirownhabitsofrewriting,editing,andproofreading.Thisassignmentcanalsoimprovethequalityoftherevisionprocess.Studentshavesaidthattheyrevisedmoredeliberatelybecauseoftherevisionrecordassignment.Knowingthattheyhadtorecordtheworktheydid,theywentabout itwithmore care.Finally,revisionrecordsarehelpfultoyouwhenevaluating studentwork,andtheyprovide aneffectivestartingpointinstudentconferences.•Collaborativeassignment.Have studentstakeapartner’sessayhome,read it,andthen write apersuasiveletterarguingforcertainchangesinit.Emphasize thateachlettershouldbedevelopedwithitsaudienceandpurposeclearlyinmind.Theprimary audienceis,ofcourse,theauthor ofthe paper;this isapersonwhopresumablywants tomakehisorherpaperasgoodasitcanbe,butwhoalsoneedsclearreasonsformakingthechangesthestudentthinksarenecessary.Thus,theletter’spurposeistopersuadetheauthortomakerevisions,suchasreorganizing theessay,supplyingmoreorbetterevidence forhis/herclaims,adoptingamoreappropriatewritingstyle,orrevisingsentence-levelrhetoricforclarityandcoherence.Advisestudentsthattheirlettersshouldbeasspecificaspossible.Theyshouldindicate whichparagraph(s) they’recommentingon,quotetheirpartner’sessaywhenevernecessary,andofferexplicitadviceonrewordingandreorganization.•Disciplinarywritingassignment.Revisionshouldtakeprecedence overproofreading,butproofreadingisstillimportant—especiallyforpublishedwriting.Havestudentsbringinexamplesofgrammar,spelling,andothermechanical errorsfrompublishedsourcessuchasnewspapers,books,journals,andWebsites.Youmightevenorganizeacontest,assigningpointsbasedontheseriousnessoftheerror(doesitaffectreadercomprehension?)andthestatusofthesource(theNewYorkTimeseditorialboardshouldprobablybemorechagrinedbyaspellingerrorthantheeditorofacampusnewspaper). Discussthepressuresandconstraintsofvariousmediathatmightcontribute tosucherrors.Headlinewriters,forexample,facetremendouschallengesintheirwriting.

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28,Inc.PART2Analyzing,Reflecting,Informing,ArguingCHAPTER5ReadwithaCriticalEyeKEYPOINTS•Yourunderstanding ofatextwillimproveifyourespondactivelyasyouread.Activereadingmeansannotatingasyouread,mappingthecontent,andwritingsummaries.Criticalreadingmeansaskingquestionsasyou read.•Goodstrategiesforcriticalreading andviewingusuallyinvolvequestions about thework,suchas“Wherediditcomefrom?”“Whatdoesitsay?”“CanI trusttheauthor?”and “How does a textwork?”•Readingcriticallywillhelpyourecognizefallacies—faulty logic,emotional appeals,ormisleadingimagesthatdonotactuallyprovideevidence supportingtheclaimbeing made.Knowingspecifictypesoffallacies,suchas“slipperyslope”“nonsequitur” and“straw man”makesthemeasiertospot.TEACHINGSUGGESTIONS•We’vefoundthatmanycollegestudentsdon’tautomatically thinkoftextsasbeingwritteninresponsetoothertexts,authors,andideas.Unlessanauthorspecifically mentionsanothertext,studentsaren’tinclinedtothinkofthatauthorasparticipating inanongoingconversation.Similarly, whentheybeginwritingtheirownessays,theyoftenfailtorealize thattheyareenteringintoanongoingconversation,nomattertheirtopic.Investigating whereatextcomesfromisthusanespeciallyimportantpartof thecriticalreadingprocess.• Practice metacognition with your students, checking in on steps in theprocess of critical readingand writing. Reiterate the steps that inform critical response to reading: gaining understanding,interpreting, analyzing, evaluating, and synthesis.•Recognizingfallaciesof logicisanessentialskillintheworkplaceandthroughout life.Helpyourstudentsseehowubiquitous fallaciesareintheappealsthatconfrontthemdaily, andadvisethemtopracticetheircriticalreadingandviewingskillsbylookingforfallacies.

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29,Inc.IN-CLASSACTIVITIES•Practicecriticalreadinginclassfrequently. Considerbringingacopyofthecampuspapertoclasseveryday.Readletterstotheeditor,articles,andeditorials withyourstudents,workingtoidentifytheauthor’spurposeinwriting,hercentralidea orclaim,andthequalityoftheevidencesheprovides.Youmayhaveconsiderabledisagreementovereachoftheseissuesatfirst,butstudentsshouldsoonlearntoidentifythepurpose,argument, andeffectiveness ofbriefpieces.(You canusethestepsfor criticalreadingthatwelistinthischapterasaguide.)•Collaborativeactivity.Havestudents,in pairsorgroups,writea letterto theeditorofthelocalpaperinwhichtheydeliberately employfivedifferentverbalfallacies.Alternatively, asaclass,youcouldcomposealetterinresponsetoarecentarticleorletterthatemployssuchafallacy.Askstudentstoconsiderwhatsortofinformation theauthorwouldneedtoprovide toavoidthefallacy.Whydo theythinkthefallacywasusedinstead?•Theysayeveryone’s acritic,andyourstudentsareprobablynoexceptiontothisrule.Fluency—the abilitytowriteorspeakideasoneafteranother,withonegivingrisetothenext—oftensurgeswhenyougivepeoplesomethingtocomplain about.Tryaskingyourclasstodescribeatelevisioncommercial orradiospottheyparticularlydislike.Aftertheyhaverunthroughthemorevisceralreasonsfortheirdislike,steerthemtowardthecriticalreadingandviewingskills outlinedinthis chapter.Consider howthesemorenuancedapproachestocriticismsupport(or undercut)students’initialresponses.SHORTASSIGNMENTS•Havestudentsreadseveraldifferentkindsoftexts—editorials, shortacademicarticles,advertisements,personalessays,andsoforth—andfollowthestepsthatwelistforcriticalreadinginthischapter.Thenaskthemtowriteabriefresponsetothetext.Ifyouassignanumberofbriefreadingsoverthecourseofseveralweeks,youcanfamiliarizeyourstudentswitharangeof genresandtheirconventions.•Haveyourstudentsdosimilarexerciseswithdifferentkindsofvisualtexts—photos fromthefrontpageofthenewspaper,photosfromillustratedmagazinessuchasNationalGeographic,Websites,chartsandgraphs,televisionandmagazineadvertisements,andso forth.•Have yourstudentsgoonascavengerhuntforverbalfallacies.Oneinstructorweknowhasherstudentstapehalfanhourofalocaltalkradioprogram, thenwriteatranscriptofit,andanalyzetheargumentsmadebythehostandcallers.Usually,thetranscriptscontainexcellentexamplesof verbalfallacies..

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