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Emerging Empires: Greece, Rome, and Persia

A historical study of emerging empires, focusing on Greece, Rome, and Persia, and their influence on world history.

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    Emerging Empires: Greece, Rome, and Persia How did the political structures and cultural practices of the Greek city - states, such as Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Corinth, influence the development of Western ideals, and in what ways can their legacies be seen in modern societies? In your answer, address the key aspects of governance, social life, and military practices in these city - states, and reflect on their lasting impact on Western thought. Your response should be approximately 800 - 1000 words. Greco - Roman culture has fascinated western scholars for centuries. As a result, it holds a larger - than - life place in influencing Western society. The ideals of Greco - Roman culture, from philosophy to democracy, have been preserved over time. As a result, many of the events, inventions, and discoveries of the Greco - Roman Empire need to be understood. And yet, the Greeks and Romans were not all - powerful groups. The emergence of larger and larger empires is very important for understanding human history, but the preservation efforts of Islamic scholars and the administrative practices of Indian and Chinese Empires might have been more important to the time period than the traditions of Greece or Rome. The rise of Persian autonomy in the fifth century BCE marked a major shift in and of itself. However, since history is often written by picking and choosing what people wish to study – from the Renaissance scholars studying ancient Greek ideas to the Enlightenment thinkers who translated Roman traditions into new forms of government – the histories of Greece, Rome, and Persia must be learned and understood. See if you can find elements from modern life through the histories of these emerging imperial powers. Ancient Greek Society Ancient Greece was more of a collection of powerful cities that individually rose and fell in influence over nearby towns and city - states. There are three primary periods of ancient Greek history: Archaic Greece, Classical Greece, and Hellenic Greece. Archaic Greece (800 - 500 BCE) was dominated by two traditional empires that were more territorial in their power: the Mycenaean and Minoan empires. During this period, the cities of Greece followed a more traditional territorial monarchy but by the end of Archa ic period cities had emerged with fresh identities that superseded the power of kingdoms and defined Ancient Greece as a whole. The Minoan Empire (2600 to 1600 BCE) benefitted from location and trade. Settled on the island of Crete, the Minoans were a key trading port. By determining the conditions for trade, they were able to consolidate their power. The Mycenaean Empire (1600 to 1100 BCE) followed the Minoans but created a flourishing power out of conquest, slowly collecting the allegiances of weaker citi es around them. However, this sense of centralized power did not endure; with the advent of democracy in some local settlements, individual Greek city - states grew in power, authority, and loyalty. Even those city - states that did not adhere to democracy, but rather clung to individual monarchies, nevertheless developed complex ideas of citizenship that underscored the loyalty to a particular city - state. These cities would bargain in influence, creating networks of neighboring regions that flowed with greater or lesser power.

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    Archaic Greek communities recorded myths and legends by decorating pottery The period of Classical Greece (500 – 323 BCE) influences still today what we think of when we consider “Ancient Greece.” The Romans, Renaissance thinkers, and Enlightenment philosophers were awestruck by Classical Greek innovations. Indeed, the period was mostly defined by the style of art: buildings like the Parthenon and sculptures of gods and goddesses followed similar themes that were considered “exemplary” or “classical” to the Greek identity. The political leadership during the Classical Greek period was dominated by the city - state of Athens and an alliance of cities known as the Delian League. This period also saw brief periods of dominance from the cities of Sparta and Thebes. The end of the Classical Period coincided with the death of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian general whose conquest of Greece and territories into the near Middle East had collected a massive empire. After his death, this empire was divided among his generals, leaving the old tradition of rule by specific powerful city - states to readjust away from fierce loyalties to the mother state and replaced with a series of territorial leagues. This new alignment led to the beginning of the Hellenic period ((323 - 146 BCE), which was dominated by cities and towns joining in alliances organized more by proximity and convenience than by political similarities. To understand the relationship of Greece as a whole, it might be a good idea to consider the relationship between early American colonies. Jamestown was technically a British colony, but the town worked to create a safe space for its residents overall. Plymouth acted much in the same, but as populations grew and the threat of violence worsened, they worked together with other towns to defend each other from attacks of Native Americans and other European empires. This kind of system is much different from th e modern US system, where a federal government oversees individual states with different legal codes, traditions, and jurisdictions. The Greek model was one of cities that were autonomous and individual but who came together during times of war or famine, such as during the Persian Wars of 500 to 448 BCE.

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    Can you identify Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, Macedoian, and Persia? The prominent cities of Ancient Greece should therefore be taken individually. There were hundreds of city - states spread across the terrain of Greece, but the four most prominent and influential cities were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Corinth. Each city had its own ideas on how to rule, how to defend itself, and how to raise subjects that were loyal to the state. Let us consider each in turn: • • Sparta was about stoicism, self - denial, honor, and the courage of military life. The prevailing theme of Spartan culture was simplicity and defense. Men and women, boys and girls, worked together to develop strong features that would encourage their defense of the state. Education was essential for all children, and both girls and boys began intense training at age 7. So strong was the determination to have a courageous and educated populace that it became common practice to isolate weak infants and leave them exposed to die rather than weigh down the city by caring for them to adulthood. Boys attained the status of full soldiers at age 20, after 13 years of training. At that point, they were expected to marry and start families. However, men continued to live together in barracks while their wives lived on plots of land that were granted to those who achieved full soldier status. Slaves worked the land until the soldiers turned 30, when they were allowed to move in with their families. Slaves were the backbone of Sparta’s economy, but the soldiers were the backbone of Spartan identity. This harsh and simple social life actually facilitated a sense of opportunity for Spartan women, who were also tough - minded and strong. Girls were sent to gymnastic and physical training alongside idealistic education. Women who survived the intense education married soldiers but since their husbands lived in barracks the wives retained a lot of freedom. They commanded their estates, moved around in public spheres, and contributed to the strength of Sparta as a whole. And yet, as with most freedom, the price of Sparta’s cultural definition was sacrificed through the labor of their slaves. Spartan slaves were taken from nearby agricultural regions. As Sparta expanded, they conquered new land. Upon taking new territory, the existing inhabitants were transformed into “ helots ” or slaves. They were unable to participate in government; they were not full citizens. Uneducated and worked hard, they tilled the fields and served Spartan citizens. Helot children were raised to serve the Spartan state. Much of what we know about Sparta is through the eyes of Athenian historians. As a result, many of the surviving accounts praise the beauty and cultural sophistication of Athens while describing a cruel and brutal reputation of the Spartans. Their rivalry was intense and therefore we should take the judgments of the Athenians of their neighbors with a grain of salt. The brutal practices described by Athenians may be exaggerated in order to provide a contrast with the supposed beauty and superiority of Athenian culture as described by Athenian historians.

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    • Athens dominated the Classical Period beginning with the Age of Pericles, also known as the Golden Age of Athens. Pericles was a strong ruler who cemented the Athenian leadership in 448 BCE. Pericles was a warrior who also engaged with philosophy, politics, architecture, sculpture, and history. His rule coincided with the discovery of silver mines nearby. The mined silver created an age of prosperity during which Pericles was able to establish political and social innovations in Athens. Spartan identity was defined by a sense of shared sacrifice and the endurance of harsh expectations, allowing Spartans to strengthen their bond with each other through suffering. In contrast, Athenian life was culturally rich and somewhat luxurious – the Spartans might have considered it decadent. Athens built architectural masterpieces and developed artistic styles. Education began at age 7 for boys. Girls were not formally educated in Athens as they were in Sparta. In both cities, military training formed the core of education. By 502 BCE, Athens had become a center for scholarly endeavors, for literature and art. The city built amazing structures to celebrate temples and Athenian culture. Athenian religious festivals were lavish and influenced the surrounding area. These achievements only encouraged the fierce rivalry between Athens and Sparta, occasionally leading to war. Yet Athens and Sparta were not the only key city - states to command influence over Greek cities. • Thebes achieved political domination of Ancient Greece during the fourth century BCE. Thebes and Sparta both rivaled Athens as the leader of Greece, and during the Persian Wars (which we will discuss in Lecture Three) Thebes actually sided with Persia against Athens. Athens won that war, and eventually established an Athenian Empire that was eventually toppled by a Spartan Hegemony in 404 BCE. In turn, the Spartans were overtaken by Thebes. The Theban Hegemony (or leadership) dismantled the existing alliances and created a new leadership that ostracized the Spartans. Theban leadership was brief, lasting only two rulers. Yet the culture of Thebes was influential. In fact, many of the gods in Greek Mythology were based on Theban traditions and leaders. The fascinating story of Oedipus took place in Thebes. Also based out of Thebes were the stories of Dionysus, God of wine, and Cadmus, who founded the city of Thebes while searching for his kidnapped sister. The presence of Thebes in such prominent myths without any written records from Ancient Thebes itself makes understanding Theban culture very difficult. Nevertheless, because of its persistent references in stories from the age (including Homer), we must understand the Theban culture was highly developed and influential, since most Greek city - states adopted the Theban myths and maintained rivalries with the city. Eventually, Alexander the Great cut off the influence of Thebes by sacking it in 335 and selling the Theban citizens into slavery. • Corinth was an influential city - state as well, capturing trade along the Corinthian Isthmus and rivaling Athens in the creation of pottery. The creation of the Corinthian Order, a form of architectural style that is synonymous with famous Greek buildings, helped cement the long - lasting impression of Corinthian artistic expression. However, many of the issues that prevent us from knowing social and cultural aspects of life in Thebes apply as well to Corinth. A lack of surviving written records makes daily life difficult to trace. Natural events like floods and earthquakes have also made archeological discoveries complicated. Nevertheless, we know that Corinth was a major contributor to trade and artistic development based at least on the Athenian concern of their society and influence. While Thebes allied with the Persians against Athens, Corinth fought with them and helped repel the Persian invasion. Ancient Greece contained dozens of city - states, each of which had years of influence. The residents of Ancient Greece would have identified most with their city of origin rather than with the “country” of Greece, regardless of how much power their city commanded at the time of their lives. The city gave them strength, a unique relationship to culture, and a defining commitment to specific gods and goddesses in the Greek mythology. The Classical Period witnessed the trade - off of power and domination among th ese cities, and well - matched cities often formed alliances with each other to improve their standing among peers of other city - states. Athens dominated the Greek cities during the fifth century BCE before creating an alliance of powerful cities in the Delian League. Although the Delian League was a conglomeration of cities, Athens continued to dominate the body as the wealthiest member, even applying their wealth to dominate decisions of conquest. When Athens began to use tax collection to build honorary st ructures in Athens, resentment from other cities against Athenian rule grew to be too great. The Peloponnesian Wars managed to break the hold of Athens over Greece, replacing it with Spartan rule from 404 to 371 BCE. Spartan leadership seemed to fall under the same spell as Athens, however, and resentment mounted against them until Thebes took control between 371 and 362. These waves of power from one city or an alliance of cities characterize the whole of the Classical Greek period. However, much of this c hanged with the power and military leadership of a young man, Alexander of Macedonia.

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