U.S. History II - America in the Fifties - Quick Guides

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Study GuideU.S. History II–America in the Fifties1.American Foreign PolicyDuring the1952 presidential campaign, Dwight D. Eisenhower criticized President Truman’s policyofcontainment, arguing it was too weak against communism. However, once in office, Eisenhowerdidnottry to roll back communism where it already existed. Instead, he focused onpreventing itsspreadwhile avoiding direct war with the Soviet Union.Although Secretary of StateJohn Foster Dullesoften talked about freeing the “captive peoples” ofEastern Europe, the United States did not act when chances arose. For example, the U.S. offerednohelpduring labor unrest inEast Germany (1953)or theHungarian revolt (1956). Eisenhowerbelieved it was safer to limit Soviet influence in other ways rather than risk a direct military conflict.1.1Brinkmanship, Massive Retaliation, and Nuclear StrategyEisenhower relied heavily on the United States’nuclear weaponsto maintain power in the Cold War.This approach led to two key strategies:BrinkmanshipBrinkmanshipmeant being willing to go to theedge of war, even nuclear war, to force an enemy toback down. The idea was that the Soviet Union or China would retreat rather than risk totaldestruction.Massive RetaliationMassive retaliationwas the promise that the U.S. would respond to aggression withoverwhelmingnuclear force. This strategy was seen as cheaper and more effective than maintaining largeconventional armies—giving the U.S. “more bang for the buck.”These threats were sometimes effective. In1953, Eisenhower’s suggestion that the U.S. might usenuclear weapons helped end theKorean War. The U.S. also threatened nuclear action to defend theislands ofQuemoy and Matsuin1955when Communist China challenged Taiwan.1.2The Domino Theory and Southeast AsiaAnother key idea shaping U.S. policy was thedomino theory. According to this theory, if one countryfell to communism, nearby countries would soon follow. Eisenhower first explained this idea whilediscussing events inIndochina.

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Study GuideIn1954, France ended its long colonial war in Indochina by signing theGeneva Accords. Theagreements:•MadeLaos and Cambodia neutral•DividedVietnamat the17th parallel•PutHo Chi Minh and the Vietminhin control of theNorth•LeftSouth Vietnamunder a pro-Western government•Called fornationwide elections in 1956to reunite the countryFearing that the Communists would win the elections, the United States and South Vietnam refused tosupport the Accords. Instead, the U.S.:•BackedNgo Dinh Diem’sgovernment in South Vietnam withmilitary and economic aid•Helped formSEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization)to limit communist expansionUnlike NATO, SEATO wasweak. It did not require members to defend one another and mainly servedas a consultation group.1.3The Middle East and the Eisenhower DoctrineIn theMiddle East, Eisenhower wanted to block Soviet influence and protect access tooil. In1953,theCIA helped overthrow Iran’s governmentand restore the pro-Westernshahto power.Trouble also arose inEgypt, where nationalist leaderGamal Abdel Nasserplanned to build theAswan High Dam. When Egypt strengthened ties with the USSR, the U.S. and Britain withdrewfinancial support. Nasser responded bynationalizing the Suez Canalin 1956.This led to theSuez Crisis, whenIsrael, Britain, and Franceattacked Egypt. Both the United Statesand the Soviet Union opposed the invasion and pressured the attackers to withdraw through theUnited Nations. Although the U.S. helped end the crisis, Soviet influence in the region actuallyincreased.In response, Eisenhower announced theEisenhower Doctrine, promising U.S. military aid to MiddleEastern countries resisting communism. In1958, this policy led to the deployment of14,000American troops to Lebanon.

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Study Guide1.4Covert Action in Latin AmericaEven though the U.S. officially followed anon-intervention policyin Latin America, it continued toinfluence the region throughcovert operations. In1954, the CIA helped overthrowJacobo Arbenzof Guatemala after he pushed land reforms that threatened theUnited Fruit Company, an Americanbusiness.These actions fueledanti-American sentiment, which became clear duringVice President Nixon’s1958 tourof Latin America, where protests broke out.Meanwhile, in1959,Fidel Castrotook power inCuba. At first, the U.S. supported the revolution, butrelations quickly worsened when Castro aligned with Communists. After the U.S. placed an embargoon Cuban sugar,Castro turned to the Soviet Unionfor support.1.5Relations with the Soviet Union and the Space RaceEisenhower believed that meeting Soviet leaders in person could reduce tensions. The firstsummitconferencewas held inGeneva in 1955, producing a brief easing of tensions known as the“spiritof Geneva.”That spirit faded quickly. In1956, the USSR crushed the Hungarian uprising. In1957, the Sovietsshocked the world by launchingSputnik, the first artificial satellite. This event:•Started thespace race•Raised fears of amissile gap•Led to theNational Defense Education Act (1958), which increased funding for science,math, and language education1.6The U-2 Incident and Eisenhower’s WarningSummit talks resumed in1959when Eisenhower metNikita Khrushchevat Camp David. However,relations collapsed in1960when the Soviets shot down a U.S.U-2 spy planeover their territory.Khrushchev exposed the incident by showing the captured pilot,Francis Gary Powers, and spyequipment, forcing Eisenhower to admit that U.S. surveillance flights had been ongoing.Although Eisenhower’s diplomacy with the Soviet Union ultimately failed, he left an important warning.In hisfarewell address, he cautioned Americans about the growing power of themilitary-industrialcomplex—the close relationship between the military and defense industries. He warned that thisalliance could gain too much influence over U.S. foreign policy if left unchecked.

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Study Guide2.The Civil Rights MovementAfter World War II, the struggle for civil rights in the United States gained new energy. While progresswas slow at first, the 1950s became a turning point as African Americans challenged segregationthrough the courts and through organized, peaceful protest. Presidents, Congress, and the SupremeCourt all played roles—but change came largely because ordinary people demanded it.2.1Early Federal Action on Civil RightsUnder PresidentHarry Truman, the federal government took limited but important steps:•Truman issuedexecutive ordersthat:oEnded discrimination infederal government jobsoDesegregated the armed forcesThese actions showed federal support for civil rights, but they did not end segregation in everyday life,especially in the South.During theEisenhower administration, the focus shifted to enforcing court decisions. Eisenhowerdid not strongly believe that courts alone could end discrimination, but he did believe inupholdingthe lawand made it clear that federal rulings had to be obeyed.2.2Brown v. Board of Education (1954)The biggest legal breakthrough came from the courts.•TheNAACP Legal Defense and Education Fundtargeted the foundation of segregation:•Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which had allowed “separate but equal” facilities.•InBrown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the Supreme Court ruled in1954that:oSeparate schools for black and white students were inherently unequaloSchool segregation violated theFourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clauseChief JusticeEarl Warren, appointed by Eisenhower, worked to ensure the decision wasunanimous,believing unity would give the ruling more authority.•In1955, the Court ordered school desegregation to proceed“with all deliberate speed”•The Court didnotexplain exactly how desegregation should happen, leaving that to statesand local governments

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